The history of world disasters is well-documented, and its forecasts suggest that such occurrences will increase in intensity and frequency. The anticipated increase in disaster activity in the world has attracted immense interest from researchers (e.g. Balcik et al. 2010; Da Costa et al. 2012; Oloruntoba & Gray 2006; Tomasini & Van Wassenhove 2009; Van Wassenhove 2006). These authors primarily focussed on the role of SCM in disaster preparedness and response. The majority of available strands of literature have mainly been on sudden-onset disasters such as the Indian Ocean earthquake in 2004, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the Pakistan earthquake in 2005, the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006, the Haiti earthquake in 2010, the Japan earthquake in 2011, and the Brazil flooding and landslides in 2011. However, droughts and disease epidemics that have equally devastating consequences have not received as much attention from researchers (Tadesse 2016).

In addition to the effects of political instability and natural disasters such as Cyclone Idai, Zimbabwe is prone to frequent droughts. The World Food Programme (WFP 2016) reported that Zimbabwe would experience frequent drought disasters in the future (Emergency Events Database [EM-DAT] 2014). However, drought is prevalent in regions IV and V, considered to be semi-arid agro-ecological, and incidences of drought are experienced throughout the country due to seasonal shifts and increased dryness (Mararike 2001:53–65; Masendeke & Shoko 2014). The Zimbabwe Vulnerability Committee (ZIMVAC) (ReliefWeb 2016) reported that over three million people in areas such as Chiredzi, Bikita, Chivi, Chipinge, Binga, Buhera, Tsholotsho, Kariba, Mwenezi, Bulilima, Mangwe and Hwange needed food relief. The Zimbabwe Vulnerability Committee (ReliefWeb 2016) further projected the number of people in need of drought relief to increase to 4.1 million by 2020. The Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission (ZHRC) also pointed out that food was being distributed along factional lines, resulting in some deserving families and individuals being deprived of food aid because of their political affiliation (ZHRC 2016). The politicisation of food relief, especially in rural communities, was also widely reported by local and international election observers (the Southern African Community Development, the African Union and the European Union, amongst others) during the 2018 national harmonised elections, when food relief was used by political players to canvas for votes. The background provided above triggered this study to establish the impact of culture, leadership attitudes, and the political state, economic state and legal framework on the effectiveness of drought supply chains in Zimbabwe.

The different role players come with divergent expectations, equipment and mission, which sometimes create discord amongst them (Cozzolino 2012). The presence of diverse role players during the response stage brings to the fore coordination complexities in disaster response initiatives. The discord amongst the different role players impedes the effectiveness of HSCs (Balcik et al. 2010). The HSC relief operation under the auspices of HSC functions under a blend of various activities including the collaboration and coordination of humanitarian relief, communication and aid, the aim of which is to effectively and efficiently ensure victims’ safety (Agarwal & Singh 2018:99). The success of disaster response depends heavily on the information available and the coordination of activities by diverse role players (Balcik et al. 2010). Coordination in disaster response is further complicated by the fact that each disaster event is unique in terms of the participants, needs of the victims and the communities (Balcik et al. 2010). According to Chatiza (2019), the lessons learnt during Cyclone Idai for future responses should include general public empathy and mobilisation, and immunisations against cholera and measles. The author further argues that for disaster response to be proactive, emergency responses from the private sector, reassignments of the national budget, communication on responses and funding should be made transparent by government. In addition, psychosocial support should be mainstreamed, and the social protection of children as well as numerous service innovations should be made available.

The majority of researchers (Da Costa et al. 2012; Mohan et al. 2011; Patemen et al. 2013) concur that SCM is at the core of a successful disaster management operation. The measure of supply chain performance is an aspect which has drawn the attention of many researchers (Beamon & Balcik 2008). According to Beamon and Balcik (2008:13), the humanitarian sector has not developed the performance metrics and measurement systems, while NGOs are aware of the significance of such tools because they compete for scarce resources and accountability demands from donors. The authors further posit that NGOs measure performance that focusses on input metrics (including financials and non-financials) rather than outputs, whereas Kara and Rancourt (2019) cite the HSC performance metrics as cost, distance and/or time.

The transportation of relief aid is regarded as a determinant of an effective drought relief operation (Tomasini & Van Wassenhove 2009). The most used modes of transport in disaster response are road, sea, air and railway (Da Costa et al. 2012). During disasters, most organisations face difficulties transporting goods, including clothing, food, medicine and medical supplies, as well as moving machinery from different points of origin to their destinations (Agarwal & Singh 2018:99). Beamon and Balcik (2008) identified three major disaster response performance metrics, namely, resource performance metrics, output performance metrics and flexibility.

Wisner et al. (2004) consider culture to affect response actions to disasters. Zimbabwe’s traditions, culture and traditional leaders (such as chiefs) have important roles in society (Masendeke & Shoko 2014). These authors argue that the administrative role of chiefs is still being recognised in the country – for example, they maintain peace and order in their areas of jurisdiction. According to Wisner et al. (2004), cultural factors are often ignored during the planning and implementation of disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies. Nunn et al. (2007) also point out that a failure to deal with cultural factors often resulted in communities being more vulnerable to disaster events and the failure of DRR strategies. Meanwhile, there is an increasing demand for HSC management in the event of the specialisation of stakeholders due to cultural, political, geographical and historical differences (Agarwal & Singh 2018:100).

The Zimbabwean economy has been on a downward trajectory for a very long time. Since 2013, real gross domestic product (GDP) growth has decelerated by an estimated 9% (Zimbabwe Reserve Bank report 2016). Impoverished communities are inherently exposed to diseases and starvation, and they rely on relief organisations such as NGOs for daily survival (Khan et al. 2008). The Zimbabwean political system has been considered to be intolerant towards NGOs and has restricted its operations (Bongo et al. 2013; Collier 2008:68) by exercising political and economic control and power (Agarwal & Singh 2018:100). The little aid available is distributed along political lines (ZHRC 2016). Muchanyerei (2017) also observed that the Zimbabwean political discourse had caused apathy and fear amongst food aid providers. Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009:10) also point to how HSCs are heavily politicised. Governments may reject aid from donors who are presumed to harbour hidden agendas.

According to Chigwedere et al. (2008), leadership attitudes can positively or negatively influence DRR. Chari and Ngcamu (2019b) believe that a myriad of leaders from the private sector, NGOs and government agencies play a crucial part in DRR. Whereas the adverse impact of supply chain members’ performance has been credited to the disruptions in SCM (Xu et al. 2020), a shortage of studies associating leadership attitudes to drought and the effectiveness of relief supply chains has led to this study being conducted in selected areas in Zimbabwe.

The Civil Protection Act [Chapter 10:06] of 2001 is responsible for managing various types of disaster in Zimbabwe. The recurrence of droughts in the country necessitated the government to develop a National Policy on Drought Management (NPDM) dealing with drought contingency plans, including preparedness, mitigation and response. Furthermore, to regulate NGOs, the Private Voluntary Act [Chapter 17:05] of 2002 was developed.

The final sample (n = 130) comprised the categories shown in Table 1. The sample was drawn from the 12 districts of Chiredzi, Bikita, Chivi, Chipinge, Binga, Buhera, Tsholotsho, Kariba, Mwenezi, Bulilima, Mangwe and Hwange (ReliefWeb 2016).

The independent regressors are termed enablers (culture, leadership attitudes, political state, economic state and legal framework). Supply chain effectiveness was proxied by transport costs, warehouse costs, quantity delivered and number of people affected by the drought relief supply chain, amongst others. Since the dependent variable is continuous and non-censored, the research objective can be estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS) (Cameroon & Trivedi 2005; Wooldridge 2002) as follows: Yi=α+βEnableri+Xi′γ+εi[Eqn 1] where Y_i is the parameter supply chain effectiveness (transport cost, warehouse cost, quantity delivered or the number of people affected).

Enabler_i is the individual i’s proxy of supply chain enablers (culture, leadership attitudes, political state, economic state and policy framework) and X_i is the vector of the background characteristics of the respondents and the organisations to which they belong.

In addition, to check robustness, a non-parametric test (called the sign test) was used to validate the results of the OLS procedure, which is the primary data analysis method (Anderson et al. 2008). In performing the sign test, an enabler influencing drought response was assigned 1 while 0 was assigned where an enabler was perceived to not influence the drought response. The authors also used heteroscedasticity robust standard errors.

Table 3 shows that 79% of respondents indicated that culture has no positive influence on the effectiveness of drought relief supply chains, against 21% who suggested that each had a positive effect at a 1% level of significance. This illustrates that there was no statistical evidence that culture positively influenced the effectiveness of HSCs in Zimbabwe. The lack of a positive impact from a cultural perspective on drought relief in Zimbabwe can be explained by Ringson (2017), Mararike (2001) and Masendeke and Shoko (2014) who agree that the role of traditional leaders in Zimbabwe has diminished over the years. Traditional leaders no longer have the influence they used to have in the community as in past decades (Ringson 2017). A total of 97 respondents strongly disagreed with the hypothesis that culture is an enabler to drought relief supply chains. A total of 10 respondents disagreed with the hypothesis that culture is an enabler, while only 22 respondents agreed that culture is an enabler. The results suggest that culture does not have any positive impact on the effectiveness of drought relief supply chains in Zimbabwe. A total of 107 of the respondents, based on their educational background, affirmed that culture is not viewed as an enabler across all educational categories. This therefore means that traditional leaders have no influence over drought supply chains in Zimbabwe. This finding implies that the progression in intensity of drought disasters in the country requires more than cultural and traditional measures to minimise the impacts of drought disasters on communities.

Table 3 shows that 79% of respondents indicated that leadership attitudes have no positive influence on the effectiveness of drought relief supply chains, against 21% who suggested that each had a positive effect at a 1% level of significance. The involvement of diverse leaders caused coordination problems, as observed by Balcik et al. (2010). Rey (2001) believes that there have been very few coordination success stories in HSCs and that coordination remains the weakest link. The discord amongst community leaders resulted in an adverse effect on the effectiveness of drought supply chains. The research findings further illustrated that 70% of respondents strongly disagreed with the hypothesis that leadership attitudes enable an effective response to drought relief. The research findings show that 107 respondents (82% of all educational categories) strongly disagreed with the assertion that leadership attitudes influence drought relief response in a positive way. This finding is in line with the results of a study by Chigwedere et al. (2008). The research finding also implies that educational background influenced the perception of respondents. To further explain this phenomenon, the involvement of diverse leaders causes coordination problems.

Table 3 reveals that 80% of the respondents did not view the political state as an enabler of drought relief supply chains, against 20% of the respondents. This suggests that the political state of the country does not positively influence the effectiveness of drought supply chains in Zimbabwe at the 1% level of significance. Table 3 also shows evidence that politics does not positively influence the response to drought relief. This is consistent with the findings of the Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission in 2016 – there was a partisan distribution of food relief. In 2016, the commission even implored politicians not to use food aid to further their political aspirations at the expense of communities. It is important to note that even though politics is not an enabler, it is nonetheless very active in HSCs. This result was consistent with Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009), who concluded that HSCs operate in highly politicised environments and that it is impossible to separate HSCs from politics. McEntire (2001) notes that deteriorating political structures create vulnerability for communities’ abilities to cope with the impact of disasters. In addition, the International Federation of the Red Cross, as cited by Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009), reported that human suffering around the world was largely ignored as political considerations prevailed over humanitarian ones. The ideal situation in humanitarian SCM is for humanitarian mission objectives to take precedence over political considerations.

The research findings illustrate that 108 respondents strongly disagreed with the view that the political state is an enabler of drought relief supply chains in Zimbabwe. Only 10 respondents agreed that the political state is an enabler of drought relief supply chains. This finding implies that the state of politics in the country does not enhance the effectiveness of drought relief supply chains. This finding is in line with the findings of Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009:10). Indeed, the political situation of the country is far from perfect. Sanctions imposed on the country by developed economies have had a knockdown effect on the economy.

The research study reveals that 20 respondents with degrees and 63 with diplomas disagreed with the view that the political state is an enabler in drought relief supply chains. It is important to note that even though politics is not an enabler, it is very active in HSCs (McEntire 2001:192). Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009:10) concluded that HSCs operate in highly politicised environments and that it is impossible to separate them from politics.

Table 3 shows that 100% of the respondents perceived the economic state as having a positive influence on drought relief response in Zimbabwe. The statistical conclusion of the sign test is that the economic state and legal framework have a positive influence on the effectiveness of humanitarian relief response in Zimbabwe at a 1% level of significance. Table 3 also shows evidence that the economic state positively influenced humanitarian relief supply chains in Zimbabwe. This finding is an interesting one, given that the economy is not in a good state. There is a high level of unemployment, which currently stands at 80% in the formal sectors of the economy, according to the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT 2017).

This study illustrates that 129 respondents agreed with the assertion that the economic state is an enabler of the humanitarian relief response. Only one respondent was unsure, and none of the respondents were against the claim that the economic state influenced the effectiveness of drought relief supply chains in Zimbabwe. The implication of this finding is that the economic state influenced the effectiveness of drought relief supply chains in the country. The primary assumption of McEntire (2001:192) is that a well-performing economy is a source of resilience against disasters for individuals and communities. The Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (2016) also reports that over 60% of the population is employed in the informal sector. The balance of trade between Zimbabwe and its major trading partner, South Africa, is negative, adding to the woes of the country. According to ZIMSTAT (2017), the informal sector in Zimbabwe is worth over US$1.7 billion.

Table 3 shows that 100% of the respondents perceived the legal framework as having a positive influence on drought relief response in Zimbabwe. Table 3 further reveals that the legal framework was viewed as a positive enabler for drought relief supply chains. The legal framework is a critical mitigating measure which deals with the physical vulnerabilities of communities (McEntire 2001). This finding confirms Henstra and McBean’s (2005) conclusion that the Australian Government managed to avert risk through laws that regulated the construction of buildings near dams, and the mandatory purchase of buildings constructed in flood-prone areas.

The study shows the perceptions of interviewed respondents as follows: 81% viewed the disaster policy as an impediment, 92% viewed leadership attitudes as an impediment, 69% viewed culture as an impediment and 86% viewed the political state as an impediment. However, only 26% of respondents viewed the legal framework as an impediment, while 20% viewed the economic state as an impediment. The findings imply that disaster policy, leadership attitudes, culture and the political state impede the effectiveness of drought relief supply chains in Zimbabwe. The study reveals that the economic state and legal framework were viewed as enablers of an effective drought relief supply chain.

McEntire (2001:191) identified social, physical, cultural, political, economic and technological factors as major factors that increase the vulnerability of communities. What is very clear is that, if the factors identified by McEntire are not improved, they will increase the vulnerability of communities. However, the underlying assumption of McEntire’s work is that resilience to the effects of disaster can be achieved by addressing weaknesses in social, physical, cultural, political, economic and technological factors.

The International Federation of the Red Cross, as cited by Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009:35), reported that worldwide human suffering was generally ignored because political considerations were more of a priority than humanitarian ones. Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009) concede that it is very difficult to isolate humanitarian relief operations from politics. The ideal situation for SCM from a philanthropic point of view is for humanitarian mission objectives to take precedence over political considerations.

The findings indicate that 129 respondents agree with the view that legal framework is an enabler in drought relief response. This finding implies that the legal framework had an influence on drought relief supply chains in Zimbabwe. The legal framework is a critical mitigating measure which deals with the physical vulnerabilities of communities (McEntire 2001:191).

The study findings reveal that 106 respondents strongly disagree with the claim that the drought disaster policy is an enabler of drought relief response. This finding suggests that disaster policy does not influence the effectiveness of drought relief. It confirms the concerns raised by Von Meding (2012:920) in the aftermath of the Hurricane Katrina disaster in New Orleans and how this city can develop although it is situated in a vulnerable location. This situation can be explained by the fact that the current drought management strategies are aimed at increasing agricultural output rather than strategies to respond to the needs of people already in need of food aid (Tadesse 2016:19).

Tables 4–7 show the OLS estimation of the relationships between the enablers and HSC efficiency, which is specified in Equation 1 in the research methodology section of this study. As Equation 1 specifies, enablers were measured using culture, leadership attitudes, political state, economic state and legal framework. At the same time, supply chain efficiency was proxied by transport costs, warehouse costs, quantities delivered and number of people affected. Equation 1 also includes a vector of the background characteristics of the respondents as well as those of their organisation.