Market-related factors are related to the markets, competition, industry and consumers. Firstly, brand-specific factors include brand image and brand protection. Organisations need to consider their brand image when reselling recovered products because of lower quality after recovery. In terms of brand protection, an example was given by Ruiz-Benítez et al. (2014:55), stating that an OEM might request from retailers to return products directly back to it for brand protection purposes.

Secondly, consumer-related factors are mostly related to consumer behaviour and/or consumer demand. For example, disposition decisions will be influenced by the willingness of consumers to return end-of-life products needed for product recovery activities. On the other hand, there might be a demand for recovered products, which organisations need to consider. By identifying the applicable factors, organisations could improve customer satisfaction.

Thirdly, competition factors include the threat of competition in the market place, a lack of competition and the behaviour of competitors. In terms of the threat of competition, OEMs might, for example, choose to enter the remanufacturing market to prevent other competitors to profit from their returns (Ferguson & Toktay 2006:352). However, the lack of competition could also influence disposition decisions, where the organisation might consider a number of disposition options because of a smooth market (Hazen et al. 2012:260). These considerations could lead to a number of business opportunities.

Fourthly, market-specific factors included market cannibalisation, conditions, position, potential, requirements and size. For instance, Rogers et al. (2013:43) stated that in order to avoid cannibalisation (old products compete with new ones in the same market), organisations might consider other alternative disposition options such as offshore secondary markets. Market position, size and conditions can also influence disposition decisions. For example, Khor et al. (2016:97) mentioned that if there is a lack of market options (limited markets), then organisations might find it the most beneficial to consider waste management practices. However, waste management practices result in no value for organisations, which could have a negative impact on organisational performance.

Finally, the industry in which an organisation operates has an influence in deciding on specific disposition options. For example, if organisations operate in the electronic industry, the disposition options will be different from those that operate in the fashion and apparel industry.

Organisations such as OEMs that want to enter the remanufacturing industry should particularly focus on the market-related factors. For instance, Hazen et al. (2012:259) found that remanufacturing organisations should consider factors such as the overall market size, market position and current and potential competition, such as the number of competing remanufacturers. In conclusion, market-related factors are important considerations for manufacturing organisations.

Product-related factors are associated with product characteristics, condition and price. Firstly, in terms of product characteristics, two examples emerged from the content analysis. Bazan et al. (2015:315) mentioned that the obsolescence rate of a product would have an influence on disposition decisions. Other authors or scholars refer to obsolescence as the ‘shelf life’ of a product. If the product has a shorter shelf life or faster obsolescence rate, certain disposition options would not be feasible, especially those that require more effort and time such as remanufacturing and recycling.

Secondly, the condition of a product could also influence disposition decisions. For instance, if the product is in a good condition, then reuse or repair will be the best choice for an organisation. Closely related to product condition is product quality. It emerged from the content analysis that product quality could play a role before, in between and/or after disposition activities. Therefore, all aspects of product quality and condition will have an impact on disposition decisions, including the quality of the product originally sold to customers and the quality of the product after disposition. Not only do these factors have an influence on the disposition decision but also customer satisfaction of the recovered product.

Thirdly, product price can also consist of price before disposition and price after disposition. Furthermore, a number of authors or scholars mentioned that along with the selling price of a product, product value would also have an influence on disposition decisions. For instance, more expensive and higher value products have different disposition option decisions than that of lower value and priced products. In terms of the product price and value after disposition, Kim and Goyal (2011:2536) explained that if the price of the recovered product is not enough to support the validity of the disposition option, it should be excluded from the disposition decision.

Finally, product life cycle also emerged as an important factor. Rogers et al. (2013:43) mentioned that disposition decisions of mature products nearing the end of their life cycle will be different from new product introductions.

Shelf life, the condition, quality and price of the product will have an influence on disposition decisions in all organisations, including retail and manufacturing businesses. More cumbersome, expensive and time-consuming recovery options will be selected if the product has a long life cycle and is of good quality, expensive and thus valuable.

Economic-related elements are often cited as important considerations for effective disposition decisions. This is mainly because of organisations focussing on costs and profitability. Firstly, it emerged that organisations need to determine all the costs associated with disposition. For instance, organisations should consider direct costs of disposition options, such as costs of landfill (disposal costs) and reverse logistics costs, such as costs of transportation, shipping and inspection costs. Furthermore, organisations should consider their overall objectives and strategies regarding costs. For instance, if a lean strategy is followed by an organisation, cost effectiveness is the overall driving force in decision-making. Therefore, more emphasis is placed on economic-related elements.

Secondly, in terms of profitability, it emerged from the content that organisations should not only look at the costs of each disposition option but also consider the financial gains that could be realised after disposition. Therefore, organisations should consider the highest return on the investment (cost) of the disposition option (income generated by that option minus cost).

Finally, the remaining economic-related factors included potential value and tax breaks. Closely related to profitability is potential economic value. It emerged that organisations should focus on the most value-producing option first, such as reuse with the highest recovery value. Therefore, organisations could enhance their financial performance related to recovery. Tax breaks are mainly associated with recovery of materials and products that has an environmental impact. Some authorities have environmental regulations in place and if organisations comply with regulations and implement environmentally friendly activities, tax breaks are possible. Considering this factor could lead to improved financial and environmental performance.

In reviewing the content of this category of factors, it became clear that economic-related factors should be considered by all organisations throughout the supply chain. Therefore, these factors are not organisational or industry-specific factors.

This category relates to internal organisational and managerial factors such as corporate social responsibility, organisational strategies, objectives and policies, core competencies and resources. Firstly, the organisation’s sincerity with corporate social responsibility could have an impact on disposition decisions. For example, if the organisation decides to take recycling serious as part of its corporate social responsibility, it would need to prove it by, for example, initiating recycling operations. Such a commitment will influence future disposition decisions.

Secondly, organisational resources and capabilities are also important considerations for effective disposition. For instance, Lu and Bostel (2007:300) mentioned that a manufacturing organisation would keep remanufacturing activities internal because of product knowledge and specialisation. Therefore, if the organisation has the resources to remanufacture a product, it might be more feasible to choose remanufacturing (Hazen et al. 2012:261). This could also result in a competitive advantage as well as cost efficiencies. On the other hand, if the organisation lacks the resources and capability for remanufacturing, then the organisation should consider other alternatives.

Finally, in terms of organisational strategies, objectives and policies, a number of considerations emerged. For instance, Skinner et al. (2008:533) stated that for effective disposition decisions, organisations should ask key questions such as: (1) Is the organisation’s primary objective financial? and (2) is the organisation more service or operationally focussed? (refer to economic factors above). Similarly, organisations should also consider their policies for effective disposition decisions. For example, Hazen et al. (2012:262) stated that an organisation’s environmental policy must correlate with its disposition strategy.

In conclusion, organisation-related factors need to be considered with disposition decision-making by all organisations, including manufacturers and retailers. For instance, as indicated above, a manufacturer should take its resources and capabilities into account to choose certain disposition options such as remanufacturing. On the other hand, if a retailer wants to convey a ‘green’ image (a corporate strategy), it might promote recycling and encourage consumers to return empty containers and make facilities for recycling (e.g. glass) available.

Operational factors are associated with the type of returns, volume of returns and the processing time of disposition operations. Firstly, the type of returns could link with product-related elements, such as product characteristics. For example, service returns mostly relate to the repair option, while end-of-life returns would include remanufacturing and recycling.

Secondly, Agrawal et al. (2016b:99) stated that the number of returned products available for disposition is important in disposition decision-making. For example, organisations might have too low return volumes to warrant options such as remanufacturing, then other alternatives might have to be considered. Certain disposition options require high-volume returns to be feasible. For instance, repair, recycling and remanufacturing all require high return volumes. Therefore, economies of scale associated with disposition options is an important consideration.

Finally, return processing time emerged from the content but to a limited extent. Some options such as remanufacturing and recycling might take a longer time to process than other options such as repair and refurbishment.

Based on the findings, it can be concluded that organisations in different parts of a supply chain, for example retailers and manufacturers, should consider operation-related factors. For instance, if a consumer returns a defective electronic product, a retailer should base its disposition on the type of return and product condition. On the other hand, a manufacturer might exclude remanufacturing or recycling from its disposition decision because of low return volumes.

Supply chain–related factors include the specific factors of the supply chain parties, supply chain drivers, the availability of third parties, supply chain agreements and supply chain capabilities.

Firstly, the factors associated with supply chain parties include the power and relationships of parties in the chain. Although the power of parties might not have a direct influence, it could still have an impact on effective disposition decisions. For instance, Xiao et al. (2010:171) and Ruiz-Benitez and Muriel (2014:573) mentioned that large retailers normally transfer costs and disposition processes to smaller manufacturers. In this case, the responsibility of disposition decision-making would be the responsibility of the manufacturer, which will also relate to supply chain party relationships. In some situations, a retailer’s disposition options of consumer returns will depend on the expectations of the manufacturer. For instance, in the case of large multinational manufacturers and distributors, small retailers will have no say in disposition options such as in the cellular phone supply chain.

Secondly, the supply chain drivers could also have an impact on effective disposition decisions. Gobbi (2011:783) provided two examples. Firstly, if the supply chain is legislation-driven, recycling will be the likely disposition decision. Alternatively, if the supply chain is value-driven, different product upgrade options such as repair and refurbishment would be more feasible.

Thirdly, the availability of third parties should also be considered. This would link to organisational resources and capabilities. If the organisation lacks the resources and capability for disposition options, outsourcing could be an important consideration. This, however, depends on the availability of capable third parties in the supply chain. For example, if a number of third parties specialise in recycling, then it should be considered as a viable option. This may result in cost savings and improved reverse logistics performance, because these third parties specialise in recovery activities.

Fourthly, supply chain agreements could play a role. There might be a possibility that parties have an agreement to share certain disposition responsibilities. For example, the manufacturer might allow the retailer to undertake repair operations but require that any products beyond repair be sent back to the manufacturer. In this case, the retailer might only carry out repairs based on the agreement with the manufacturer.

Finally, supply chain capabilities could link to resources of organisations and the availability of third parties. For example, if the retailer has the capability and resources to carry out repair operations, repair will form part of its disposition decisions. However, if the retailer lacks the capabilities and resources to perform refurbishment, other parties within the supply chain might have to carry out refurbishment operations. On the other hand, if no party in the supply chain has the capability to refurbish returned products, other alternatives should be considered.

With the supply chain management approach, it makes sense that organisations collaborate when making disposition decisions. However, power, drivers, agreements and capabilities might influence the disposition decisions in the supply chain.

Environmental factors are associated with environmental awareness and concerns, impact, environmental policies and approaches. Firstly, in terms of environmental awareness and concerns, it emerged that environmental awareness on the part of the organisation as well as the society could lead to disposition decisions other than waste management and disposal. Similarly, environmental impact could also lead to organisations to seek alternatives other than disposal. For example, some of the product upgrade options include replacement of parts, so organisations should determine the waste that could be generated during each disposition option.

Secondly, environmental policies could be either internal, such as organisational policies, or external such as environmental laws and policies of government. For instance, in South Africa, the Strategic Plan of the Department of Environmental Affairs (2012:13) included the aim of improving waste management in terms of disposal and recycling practices. Therefore, organisations need to consider internal and external environmental policies when making disposition decisions.

Finally, environmental approach directly relates to organisational strategies and policies. Hazen et al. (2012:262) provided an example differentiating between a reactive approach and proactive approach. In a reactive approach, organisations will abide by environmental regulations, and in a proactive approach, organisations will anticipate future regulations. In both cases, organisations could contribute to environmental protection and conservation of resources.

All organisations in a supply chain should consider environment-related factors. For instance, if one organisation within a supply chain has a proactive approach to the environment, it could influence the disposition decisions of the other members of the supply chain. Alternatively, the environmental policies of the government could also be applicable to all organisations within the supply chain. Ultimately, by considering these factors, organisations in a supply chain could improve their environmental performance.

Other external factors include the development of a country, laws, regulations and stakeholder needs. Firstly, in terms of the development of a country, two examples emerged from the content analysis. For instance, Kinobe et al. (2015:82) mentioned that incineration is inappropriate in developing countries because of the high costs associated with it. Sarkis et al. (2010:345) stated that developing countries might benefit from recycling activities for job creation purposes. Therefore, considering this factor could enhance the national economy of a country.

Secondly, laws and regulations also emerged strongly from the content analysis. Managers of organisations should be aware of the laws and regulations of a country when making disposition decisions. One example was provided by Agrawal et al. (2016b:99), stating that in some countries, legislation prevents organisations from disposing of end-of-life products, such as in the case of extended producer responsibility (EPR) regulations. In some sectors in South Africa, there are governmental strategies and regulations related to product disposition, such as compulsory environment rehabilitation in the mining sector.

Finally, stakeholder needs could also influence disposition decisions. Stakeholders include parties such as workers, customers, suppliers, shareholders and the community. Customers or consumers and suppliers can be linked to the categories of influencing factors already discussed above. However, other stakeholders’ needs could also have an impact on disposition decisions. For example, organisations might operate in societies that focus on environmental awareness, which could result in the exclusion of disposal as an option. It is evident that external factors could also influence disposition options in organisations and supply chains.

In conclusion, many factors (refer to Table 2) should be considered when making disposition decisions. These factors therefore determine the disposition option selected. Each disposition option holds certain potential benefits and can add value to organisations and supply chains. The following section will focus on these value-adding benefits.

A number of economic benefits emerged from the content analysis. For instance, considering appropriate disposition decision factors could result in cost savings, improved financial performance, improved asset recovery, increased profitability and revenue generation. Firstly, Huang and Yang (2014:634) indicated that economic benefits could be realised through considering the disposition decisions made by competitors. This shows the importance of considering various factors when making disposition decisions.

In addition, it also emerged that all options except waste management could result in economic benefits. For instance, the reuse option is associated with transportation cost savings, while remanufacturing is associated with production cost savings and recycling associated with disposal cost savings. Therefore, organisations should also consider the economic benefits associated with each disposition option to improve financial performance.

Finally, Khor et al. (2016:97) stated that focussing on organisational strategies as a factor that influence disposition decisions could lead to improve decision-making, which could improve the overall profitability of the organisation.

Some operational benefits emerged from the content analysis, which are mostly related to the reverse logistics process and product returns. For instance, it emerged that effective disposition decision-making can result in improved operational performance, better control over returns, improved reverse logistics performance, reduced impact of product returns and reduced or preserved inventory. This is largely because of greater understanding and planning associated with disposition decision-making. This indicates that a number of factors should be considered in order to realise operational benefits.

In addition, operational benefits could also be associated with choosing specific disposition options. For instance, the reuse option is associated with preserving inventory, while remanufacturing and refurbishment can enhance operational performance. Therefore, considering operation-related disposition decision factors could result in operational improvements.

Market-related benefits are mostly associated with expansion of markets and sales growth, competitiveness and improved customer satisfaction. For instance, in remanufacturing, organisations can expand their business into alternative markets, which will lead to sales growth. In addition, Khor and Udin (2012:12) stated that by expanding markets, organisations would experience economic benefits and a competitive advantage, which could offset the possibility of internal cannibalisation. Therefore, through effective disposition decisions, organisations can have a competitive advantage through reselling and remarketing of recovered products. In addition, effective disposition decisions could enable organisations to create value for customers, which may lead to customer satisfaction (Lee & Lam 2012:595). Essentially, marketing benefits could be linked to marketing-related factors as well as economic-related factors. These benefits would lead to improved market and financial performance.

In terms of the environmental benefits, some authors or scholars also mentioned that this is an important outcome of considering certain disposition decision factors. Various environmental benefits emerged from the content analysis including improved environmental performance, waste reduction and conservation of resources. For instance, Khor and Udin (2012:4) stated that effective disposition decision-making enables organisations to become environmentally responsible through sound disposition practices.

It was evident from these findings that environmental benefits could be linked to disposition decisions related to the environment. However, by considering other factors such as laws and regulations of government, organisations could also realise environmental benefits. Therefore, through effective disposition decisions, organisations can improve overall environmental performance.

Limited authors or scholars mentioned the supply chain benefits that could be realised through effective disposition decisions. However, it did emerge that supply chain relationships could improve when considering supply chain–related factors. For instance, considering supply chain party needs could enhance supply chain performance. In addition, by collaborating on disposition decisions, all parties could experience improved supply chain relationships. These benefits could therefore improve organisational performance as well as supply chain performance.

A few social benefits also emerged from the content analysis. These benefits are mostly associated with stakeholders such as the society in which the organisation operates. An example of social benefits included job creation. For instance, recycling operations require labour, which lead to job creation. In addition, it also emerged that improved stakeholder relationships could be realised, specifically in terms of considering consumer needs as well as the needs of societies when making disposition decisions.

Finally, it emerged that through effective disposition decisions, an organisation can also enhance the national economy of a country. Essentially, effective disposition can enhance an organisation’s social performance and be associated with corporate social responsibility. In addition, sustainability and ecologically friendly activities would benefit the society in which the organisation operates.

From the findings, it is evident that an organisation can enhance its performance by considering the disposition decision factors when making disposition decisions. It is therefore important to understand the factors required for effective disposition decisions to realise value-adding benefits, which can lead to improved organisational performance.