Maritime transportation remains the cornerstone of international trade, facilitating global economic integration through the movement of goods across extensive distances. As of the year 2023, over 80% of global trade by volume and more than 70% by value were conducted by sea, underscoring the sector’s vital role in the world economy (UNCTAD 2023). While innovations such as the steam engine, enabling ships in the 19th century to overcome wind dependence and extend their range, significantly shaped maritime trade (Rodrigue 2020), the function and importance of ports in the maritime value chain have since undergone substantial change. Initially, ports were viewed mainly as transhipment points with limited strategic or value-adding functions.

However, such perspectives no longer capture the multifaceted nature of contemporary ports.

Advances in containerisation, digitisation, automation and intermodal logistics have redefined ports as complex logistical ecosystems vital to supply chain optimisation, national competitiveness and regional development (Brooks, Cullinane & Pallis 2021; Panayides & Monios 2022).

Today, ports serve not only as gateways for cargo movement but also as platforms for value creation, integrating logistics, customs processes, warehousing and real-time digital services to boost supply chain efficiency (Hoffmann, Wiegmans & Van Baalen 2022; Merk, Teravaninthorn & Tseng 2023). Modern ports are designed to facilitate trade, support hinterland connectivity, promote economic clustering and provide digitally enabled supply chain visibility (Acciaro, Ghiara & Cusano 2020).

This evolution reflects broader shifts in global trade, where port competitiveness is measured not solely by cargo throughput but also by agility, resilience, connectivity and governance effectiveness (World Bank 2023). Consequently, ports are increasingly seen as strategic enablers of economic growth, innovation and integration, particularly within emerging markets seeking to leverage maritime infrastructure for development. Therefore, a port is best defined not merely as a physical location for cargo handling but as a digitally integrated, operationally complex and economically strategic facility that connects maritime and inland transportation systems through advanced infrastructure and institutional coordination (Çelik & Ceyhun 2020).

Port location and design are influenced by factors such as navigational access, proximity to inland transport corridors, regional economic activity and environmental resilience (Parola et al. 2021). In this context, the ability of a port to deliver seamless, cost-efficient and digitally traceable logistics services is increasingly a key aspect of its relevance within the global economy. In South Africa, the port system includes eight commercial ports, serving both national and international trade, comprising multi-purpose ports like Durban, Cape Town, Gqeberha and East London, as well as bulk-specialised ports such as Richards Bay, Mossel Bay and Saldanha Bay (Havenga, Simpson & Mjoli 2023). Uniquely, this system is centrally governed by the TNPA and operated by Transnet Port Terminals (TPT).

This state-controlled model differs from the typical landlord-port framework seen elsewhere, aiming to align port operations with broader national development goals rather than solely market competition (Meyiwa & Matlala 2023).

While the state-controlled model offers potential development benefits, it can also lead to bureaucratic inefficiencies that hamper responsiveness and operational independence. The Port of Ngqura, near Gqeberha, exemplifies both the opportunities and challenges of modern port development. Built as South Africa’s latest deep-water port, Ngqura was strategically positioned to serve containerised transhipment along key East–West and South–South corridors.

Despite its modern facilities, Ngqura faces issues of underutilisation and ongoing operational difficulties, including procurement delays, limited digital integration and planning fragmentation (Ntuli & Takaendesa 2022; Transnet 2022). Recent research by Chhetri et al. (2022) highlights those inefficiencies in terminal systems, such as outdated cargo handling technologies and maintenance lapses, which not only cause vessel congestion but also undermine customer satisfaction. Inability to fully operationalise systems like NAVIS or maintain reliable terminal equipment results in vessel delays, increased dwell times and high port user dissatisfaction. These performance issues are not solely technical; they reflect a failure to align infrastructural capacity with workforce performance, digital readiness and institutional accountability.

To fully understand these complex inefficiencies, this study employs two complementary theoretical frameworks: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Vroom’s Expectancy Theory.

Herzberg’s model distinguishes hygiene factors such as reliable equipment, fair remuneration and safe working conditions, and motivation factors, including recognition, achievement and career development, asserting that both are essential for maintaining operational efficiency (Alshmemri, Shahwan-Akl & Maude 2017; Herzberg 1966). For instance, the 2019 strike at TPT, partly driven by grievances over deteriorating working conditions and neglected maintenance, demonstrates how the absence of basic hygiene factors can undermine workforce performance (BusinessTech 2022).

The October 2022 national Transnet strike, which paralysed port and rail operations across South Africa for nearly 2 weeks, highlighted the ongoing issues of unresolved labour dissatisfaction, equipment failures and poor communication between management and unions (Truck & Freight Information Online 2022). The recurrence of such industrial actions emphasises that without a consistent focus on essential factors like fair incentives, proper maintenance, and transparent management practices, employee motivation and port productivity are likely to remain hindered.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation (1964) explains that individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their efforts. The theory is underpinned by three interrelated components: expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Expectancy refers to an individual’s belief that putting in more effort will lead to better performance. Instrumentality is the belief that if one performs well, they will receive a desired outcome or reward. Valence represents the value or desirability that an individual places on that reward. According to the theory, motivation is highest when all three elements are strong and aligned; however, if any component is lacking, overall motivation will diminish (Parijat & Bagga 2014). As Gordon (2022) notes, this psychological disconnect is especially damaging in operational environments like ports, where staff engagement and consistency are crucial for avoiding systemic bottlenecks.

In the case of Ngqura Port, these frameworks help explain why infrastructure investment alone cannot resolve performance issues. Challenges stem from technological underperformance, weak institutional coordination and workforce demotivation. Without addressing these human and organisational factors, capital-intensive upgrades may have a limited impact. An integrated approach is therefore necessary, one that combines infrastructure modernisation, digital innovation, regulatory reform and workforce empowerment. Effective port management requires a holistic strategy that unites physical modernisation, digital transformation and human resource development. Only by addressing these interconnected areas can ports, particularly those like Ngqura with significant operational hurdles, reach their full potential as drivers of regional and global trade. Figure 1 presents the study site, the Port of Ngqura, which provides the geographical context for the research.

This study adopted a qualitative research design informed by an interpretivist paradigm and an inductive reasoning approach. This philosophical foundation was deemed suitable for exploring the complex and context-specific productivity challenges at the Port of Ngqura.

The interpretivist perspective facilitated the co-construction of meaning through direct engagement with operational stakeholders. A purposive sampling strategy was used to select participants with relevant insights and managerial experience. This approach was employed to ensure that individuals with specialised knowledge of the Port of Ngqura’s operations and productivity dynamics were included.

Participants were chosen based on their operational or managerial roles within TNPA and TPT. They typically had extensive experience, generally exceeding 5 years, in areas such as port operations, infrastructure management or logistics coordination. Additionally, they were directly involved in decision-making processes that influence port performance. This method allowed for the inclusion of information-rich participants able to provide in-depth insights into both the strategic and operational aspects of productivity at the port.

A total of 10 individuals were interviewed: five from TNPA, which manages infrastructure and marine services, and five from TPT, responsible for cargo movement and terminal operations. This sample size aligns with the guidance of Shetty (2023), who argues that a carefully chosen qualitative sample of this size is appropriate when ethical safeguards and sampling integrity are maintained.

Because of scheduling constraints, some participants opted to respond in their own time, with the researchers utilising a combination of email responses and a secure Google Form questionnaire link. The semi-structured interview guide consisted of two sections: an initial consent form and a set of open-ended questions designed to garner perspectives on operational barriers and opportunities for productivity enhancement.

To ensure methodological rigour and trustworthiness, two strategies were employed: peer debriefing and thick description. Peer debriefing, as described by Nguyen (2008), involved regular consultation with an external qualitative research expert. This provided ongoing critical feedback during data collection and interpretation. Additionally, thick description was used to offer rich contextual detail, including the operational setting, participant characteristics and research procedures. Such detail, emphasised by Nowell et al. (2017), supports analytical transferability and bolsters the credibility of findings by enabling readers to assess relevance across different contexts.

Prior to the commencement of the study, ethical clearance was obtained from the Nelson Mandela University Ethics Committee (Ethics Clearance Number: H22-BES-DEV-058), and permission to conduct the research was granted by port management. All participants provided written informed consent, confirming their voluntary participation without any form of coercion. They were also informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any stage without any negative consequences.

All information provided by participants was treated confidentially and remained anonymous. The collected data remain the property of Nelson Mandela University and will be stored electronically for five years in a password-protected format. The study adhered fully to the requirements of the Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA) of 2021 throughout both data collection and analysis.

This question aimed to establish participants’ levels of experience and their respective roles at the port. The participants’ experience and positions were key factors examined in this study.

Notably, the respondents included individuals with substantial expertise in the field. For example, a Chief Operations Manager from TPT and a Port Performance Monitor from TNPA, both senior roles, participated. These professionals have accumulated over 10 years of experience, providing them with a solid understanding of port operations and management.

Table 1 presents the alignment of participant responses with the key themes that emerged from the findings, illustrating how these correspond to Vroom’s Expectancy Theory.

Additionally, two crane operators from TPT, also with over 10 years of experience, participated. It is important to note that all participants are highly relevant and contribute significantly to the study. Their extensive experience indicates that they possess valuable insights into the strategies and practices implemented at the port. Their expertise enhances the credibility and reliability of the findings.

This question sought to understand the participants’ understanding of what productivity was in their view. The participants’ understanding of productivity varied slightly between management and operational staff, but both emphasised efficiency and meeting key operational targets.

A participant at TPT explained:

From the operators’ perspective, productivity was closely linked to seamless coordination across departments:

This revelation aligns directly with Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. Operators perceive that even if they exert effort (expectancy), performance suffers because of systemic inefficiencies, weakening their belief that performance will lead to desired outcomes (instrumentality). Furthermore, valence appears low, as the perceived outcomes, such as bonuses or recognition, no longer carry the same motivational value.

Table 1 synthesises how the empirical findings map onto the three components of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, which are expectancy, instrumentality and valence, to illuminate the motivational underpinnings of productivity barriers at the Port of Ngqura. The first column lists the principal themes identified through participant interviews, including equipment failures, staffing shortages, incentive-scheme issues, KPI perceptions, interdepartmental coordination and training gaps. The ‘Expectancy’ column shows how each theme undermines employees’ belief that effort will lead to effective performance (e.g. constant breakdowns erode confidence that hard work will yield results). The ‘Instrumentality’ column demonstrates how, even when performance is possible, systemic obstacles or unclear reward linkages prevent performance from producing valued outcomes. Finally, the ‘Valence’ column highlights the degree to which proposed or existing rewards are seen as desirable by staff, revealing that low morale and poorly designed incentives fail to motivate. Together, these alignments clarify that, unless all three motivational elements are strengthened, efforts to boost physical or technical capacity alone will be insufficient to achieve lasting productivity gains.

This question sought to establish how the factors answered above in the factors that contribute to the productivity at the Port of Ngqura. Management viewed these factors as enablers of competitiveness and efficiency, but also acknowledged operational disruptions.

One manager explained:

Operators echoed similar concerns. An operator noted:

This finding directly illustrates the third aspect of Vroom’s expectancy theory, namely, ‘valence’ (new incentive scheme) is not valued. Thus, even if effort could lead to performance, and performance to reward, the reward is not desirable. The breakdown across all three components of Vroom’s model – expectancy, instrumentality and valence demonstrate a collapse in motivational alignment. Are Productivity factors in place?

This question sought to determine whether the Port of Ngqura indeed had the required productivity factors in place. While both groups confirmed that productivity measures such as truck turnaround time, berth utilisation and ship working hours are in place, they also admitted that targets are not being met:

An operator reinforced this sentiment:

Again, this illustrates the fact that although performance expectations are known, the conditions do not support high expectancy (the belief that effort will lead to performance). When consistent performance seems unattainable and rewards are misaligned with effort, motivational breakdown is inevitable.

This section addresses the second research question by outlining participants’ recommendations for improving productivity at the Port of Ngqura. Their responses highlight several practical strategies which, when interpreted through Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation, also point to key motivational gaps affecting the port’s workforce.

Participants suggested enhancing asset utilisation, increasing staffing capacity, investing in infrastructure, upskilling employees, refurbishing equipment and improving staff morale through an effective incentive scheme.

Optimal asset utilisation was widely recommended, particularly ensuring that existing terminal equipment is operated at full capacity. Several participants felt that there are not enough qualified operators available to manage the equipment during peak operational periods, which creates delays and reduces efficiency. As one senior operations manager noted:

This observation reflects a breakdown in expectancy, as employees believe their effort cannot translate into performance if adequate human resources and operational support are lacking.

Infrastructure investment was also identified as a key priority, particularly concerning road, rail and quayside facilities. Participants stressed that outdated rail lines and congestion around the terminal delay cargo movement and reduce operational efficiency. A performance monitor from TNPA stated:

By improving infrastructure, the port would be removing external barriers to performance, which enhances both expectancy (belief that effort will lead to improved performance) and instrumentality (confidence that performance will result in meaningful outcomes).

Participants also called for targeted training and employee upskilling to improve operational competence. Operators specifically requested structured and ongoing training in key systems such as NAVIS and SPARCS. One operator explained:

This aligns directly with the expectancy component of Vroom’s theory; when employees feel adequately trained, they are more likely to believe that their efforts will lead to successful performance.

The need to refurbish and properly maintain critical equipment was a recurring theme among participants. They reported that delayed repairs and a lack of spare equipment often leave operators idle and unable to perform their tasks. One operator pointed out that:

This situation undermines both expectancy and instrumentality, as workers feel their performance is hindered by factors beyond their control and that their efforts are not consistently linked to outcomes.

In addition to equipment issues, staffing shortages were highlighted as a persistent concern.

Participants mentioned that many experienced staff members had left the organisation because of retirement, voluntary severance packages or contract terminations, and those vacancies remain unfilled. As a result, the existing staff faces excessive workloads and reduced operational capacity, which further diminishes motivation and morale.

Finally, participants emphasised the importance of restoring employee morale through an improved and transparent incentive scheme. Many felt that the revised scheme lacks clarity and does not adequately reward performance. One participant reflected:

This response illustrates a breakdown in both instrumentality and valence: employees no longer believe that their performance leads to valued rewards, and the rewards offered are no longer perceived as meaningful or desirable.

Overall, the recommendations provided by the participants are not only practical but also address deeper motivational dynamics. When viewed through Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, it becomes clear that restoring productivity at the Port of Ngqura requires more than technical interventions; it demands a holistic approach that rebuilds the psychological connections between effort, performance and reward. Reinstating clear pathways among these elements could significantly enhance motivation and contribute to measurable improvements in port productivity.

This study has made a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge and has provided guidelines that can help management improve operations at the Port of Ngqura.

However, like many studies, it has some limitations that could inform future research.

Firstly, this research was limited to the Port of Ngqura, and the small sample size may affect the generalisability of the findings. Therefore, larger sample sizes should be considered for future studies. For further research, it would be beneficial to conduct a detailed investigation into the views of the port’s clients to identify specific ways to enhance services tailored to port users. The agricultural sector could be a key target population for this research.

Secondly, conducting a similar study at the Port of Durban and the Port of Cape Town could provide insights into similarities and differences across the Transnet group. These data could be valuable for improving all ports in South Africa. Lastly, a new study could explore whether the privatisation of the main container ports in South Africa is vital for addressing the productivity challenges faced by the sector.