Abstract
Background: Port efficiency is a key determinant of competitiveness in global trade, as efficient ports enable faster cargo movement, reduced vessel turnaround times, and improved logistics performance. To maintain competitiveness, ports must continuously examine and enhance their productivity factors.
Objectives: This study aimed to achieve two objectives: firstly, to explore the factors influencing port productivity at the Port of Ngqura in South Africa; and secondly, to propose strategic recommendations that could assist management in enhancing operational efficiency and overall performance.
Method: A qualitative research approach was employed, using semi-structured interviews with participants from Transnet Port Terminals (TPT) and the Transnet National Ports Authority (TNPA). Guided by the principles of information power and saturation reasoning, ten participants were purposively selected to provide rich insights into productivity-related issues at the Port of Ngqura.
Results: Findings revealed that port productivity is influenced by equipment reliability, technological advancement, human resource capacity and infrastructure adequacy. Shortcomings in equipment, infrastructure and workforce stability were identified as major challenges limiting operational effectiveness.
Conclusion: Improving port productivity requires investment in modern equipment, technology upgrades, and infrastructure improvements. Furthermore, addressing human resource challenges related to resignations, voluntary separation plans (VSPs) and contract terminations through effective planning is essential.
Contribution: The study contributes to port management and supply chain literature by providing context-specific insights into productivity determinants at the Port of Ngqura and offering evidence-based recommendations for enhancing efficiency and competitiveness within South Africa’s maritime sector.
Keywords: port productivity; port efficiency; Port of Ngqura; operational efficiency; port performance.
Introduction
Water transportation plays an important role in international trade, with sea transport accounting for 80% of the total trade volume worldwide (Chang, Song & Wan 2021). The shipping industry has been instrumental in facilitating globalisation, allowing businesses to establish a global presence. Mwendapole (2015) describes a seaport as an area designated for the loading and unloading of cargo from ships. Ports play a crucial role in a country’s economic development by attracting a variety of trading partners, creating both direct and indirect employment opportunities, stimulating industrial clusters in neighbouring areas and reducing transport and transaction costs that facilitate international trade (Pallis, Kladaki, & Notteboom 2023; UNCTAD 2023; World Bank 2023).
Modern definitions emphasise that ports are more than just physical cargo hubs; they are integrated logistics and value-creation platforms that enhance supply chain resilience, foster regional economic connections and support the blue economy. Recent empirical studies indicate that investments in modern ports often lead to multiplier effects, including job creation, improved market access for exporters and the development of port-related industries (Notteboom, Pallis & Knatz 2025; World Bank 2023).
Ports are important for a country’s economic and strategic development as they facilitate imports and exports (Song & Parola 2015). Given that container ships transport most traded products, international trade heavily relies on container ports, which play a significant role in the trade and economic progress of countries (Al-Mawsheki 2017). Consequently, improving the efficiency of container ports is critical for a country’s competitiveness and economy (Al-Mawsheki 2017). Although container ships represent only one-eighth of the total world fleet, they are essential for the global transport of containerised consumer goods (Baik 2017). South Africa benefits from its strategic location, as most of the world trade is conducted via sea transportation. South Africa takes advantage of its strategic location, allowing it to connect with both Western and Eastern markets, as well as neighbouring African countries. This positioning offers a natural benefit for export-led growth and regional transhipment. However, recent global benchmarking reveals that this geographic advantage has not consistently improved operational performance.
The Container Port Performance Index (CPPI) for the 2020–2024 period shows that four major South African container ports rank at or near the bottom of the global list of 403 ports. This highlights persistent operational challenges, including long vessel waiting times and prolonged periods in the port, which hinder the potential economic benefits of the country’s location (World Bank & S&P Global Market Intelligence, CPPI 2025).
Incorporating the findings from the CPPI into this paper is essential. It places the productivity issues of the Port of Ngqura within a broader context of national underperformance, emphasises the urgent need for reforms in infrastructure, maintenance and governance and supports the study’s recommendations for investment in equipment reliability, hinterland connectivity and targeted management interventions. The blockage of the Suez Canal in March 2021 highlighted South Africa’s significance in global trade, as some vessels redirected their routes to the Cape of Good Hope. The handling of goods and cargo at ports through imports and exports significantly contributes to economic growth.
Port authorities and managers have shown considerable interest in the efficient management of ports, recognising their role as key links in commerce and supply chains (Cheon, Dowall & Song 2010). Cheon et al. (2010) further state that seaports around the globe engage in intense competition with nearby ports. Consequently, they are continually seeking innovative methods to fulfil the growing demands of liner companies for throughput and services while simultaneously reducing costs. In South Africa, ports are essential for facilitating economic exchange. As such, there is a pressing need for the sector to be managed effectively to satisfy industry requirements. There are several seaports in South Africa. However, the Port of Ngqura served as the focus area for the study. The Port of Ngqura, being relatively new in South Africa, is crucial for transhipment and is situated close to the Coega Industrial Development Zone and holds operational importance for countries in the Southern African Development Community.
Key performance indicators (KPI) for ports include berth utilisation, occupancy, ship turnaround time and anchorage waiting time. According to South Africa’s Transnet National Port Authority (TNPA 2021), the Port of Ngqura experienced an average ship anchorage waiting time of 56 h, which exceeds the target of 35 h. This discrepancy underscores the need to identify and address productivity factors to optimise port utilisation and enhance overall operational efficiency. Recent findings from the CPPI 2025, which evaluates port performance for the calendar year 2024, indicate that South Africa’s major container ports continue to rank among the lowest in the world. The Port of Ngqura, along with Durban, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth, is positioned near the bottom of the global list of 403 container ports (World Bank & S&P Global Market Intelligence 2025). This updated ranking highlights ongoing operational inefficiencies, including long vessel waiting times, unreliable equipment and delayed maintenance cycles.
These findings underscore the need for targeted policy and management interventions to address systemic performance issues. By incorporating the latest CPPI results, this study places the challenges faced by the Port of Ngqura within a broader national context of underperformance, which continues to hinder South Africa’s maritime competitiveness.
In 2019, workers went on a ‘tools down’ or a ‘go slow’ protest because of unhappiness with the discontinuation of incentives that Transnet had in place and stopped because of financial constraints. The United National Transport Union (UNTU) claimed that inefficient management was also to blame for the strike (Ngcukana 2019). This strike had an impact on many big industries being serviced by the port, such as the automotive industry at Volkswagen South Africa.
In October 2022, a nationwide strike by Transnet SOC Ltd workers (from 06 to 17 October) significantly disrupted operations at South Africa’s key ports. During the initial weeks of the strike, container and car terminals at the Port of Durban reported a nearly 60% decrease in vessel calls. Freight forwarders estimated that goods worth billions of rand were left idle each day (Ctrack 2023; World Bank 2022).
For instance, the automotive industry, including the Volkswagen South Africa supply chain, was substantially impacted as Ro-Ro terminals were closed and truck appointments were cancelled. The backlog of containers and delayed exports highlight ongoing challenges in labour and infrastructure that affect the competitiveness and operational reliability of South African ports, reminiscent of the ‘tools down’ protest in 2019 (Ngcukana 2019; Truck & Freight Information Online 2022). Therefore, this study focuses on the critical linkages between equipment reliability, turnaround time and labour management, making it particularly relevant currently.
According to De Kock (2019), Volkswagen SA was forced to slow down production at the plant. Slowing down production and closing operations could lead to job losses and livelihood challenges. Based on the foregoing, pinpointing the factors that affect productivity could assist the Port of Ngqura in operating more efficiently, ensuring its growth and competitiveness on a global scale.
In a highly competitive environment where businesses strive for optimal operating methods, delivering rapid and high-quality service to satisfy client requirements is essential. The same principle should be applied to port operations.
Despite a substantial amount of research on port performance that highlights macro-indicators such as cargo throughput, hinterland connectivity, and trade volumes (Parola et al. 2021; Song & Parola 2015), there is a notable lack of studies examining the human and organisational factors that drive productivity in South African ports. While recent studies have identified technical bottlenecks and institutional misalignments (Chhetri, Adarker & Nguyen 2022; Viljoen & Chasomeris 2021), they rarely consider the motivational and psychological aspects highlighted by Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. In particular, the combined effects of equipment reliability, staffing adequacy, incentive design and workforce morale on daily operational efficiency remain under-explored. By capturing and contrasting the perspectives of both management and frontline operators at the Port of Ngqura, this study fills that gap, providing a theory-informed, comprehensive framework for understanding and ultimately improving port productivity in the South African context.
The aim of this research was twofold. Firstly, to explore the factors influencing port productivity specifically at the Port of Ngqura. Secondly, to make recommendations that could potentially assist the management of the Port of Ngqura in enhancing its productivity.
The research questions that emerged for exploration are: (1) What are the key factors that contribute to productivity at the Port of Ngqura? and (2) What recommendations can be made to assist the management of the Port of Ngqura to enhance productivity? This study makes a significant contribution to the body of knowledge by adding new variables to Hertzberg’s two-factor theory and Vroom’s expectancy theory. Practically, the recommendations proposed in the study can assist port managers in improving productivity.
Literature review and theoretical foundation
Maritime transportation remains the cornerstone of international trade, facilitating global economic integration through the movement of goods across extensive distances. As of the year 2023, over 80% of global trade by volume and more than 70% by value were conducted by sea, underscoring the sector’s vital role in the world economy (UNCTAD 2023). While innovations such as the steam engine, enabling ships in the 19th century to overcome wind dependence and extend their range, significantly shaped maritime trade (Rodrigue 2020), the function and importance of ports in the maritime value chain have since undergone substantial change. Initially, ports were viewed mainly as transhipment points with limited strategic or value-adding functions.
However, such perspectives no longer capture the multifaceted nature of contemporary ports.
Advances in containerisation, digitisation, automation and intermodal logistics have redefined ports as complex logistical ecosystems vital to supply chain optimisation, national competitiveness and regional development (Brooks, Cullinane & Pallis 2021; Panayides & Monios 2022).
Today, ports serve not only as gateways for cargo movement but also as platforms for value creation, integrating logistics, customs processes, warehousing and real-time digital services to boost supply chain efficiency (Hoffmann, Wiegmans & Van Baalen 2022; Merk, Teravaninthorn & Tseng 2023). Modern ports are designed to facilitate trade, support hinterland connectivity, promote economic clustering and provide digitally enabled supply chain visibility (Acciaro, Ghiara & Cusano 2020).
This evolution reflects broader shifts in global trade, where port competitiveness is measured not solely by cargo throughput but also by agility, resilience, connectivity and governance effectiveness (World Bank 2023). Consequently, ports are increasingly seen as strategic enablers of economic growth, innovation and integration, particularly within emerging markets seeking to leverage maritime infrastructure for development. Therefore, a port is best defined not merely as a physical location for cargo handling but as a digitally integrated, operationally complex and economically strategic facility that connects maritime and inland transportation systems through advanced infrastructure and institutional coordination (Çelik & Ceyhun 2020).
Port location and design are influenced by factors such as navigational access, proximity to inland transport corridors, regional economic activity and environmental resilience (Parola et al. 2021). In this context, the ability of a port to deliver seamless, cost-efficient and digitally traceable logistics services is increasingly a key aspect of its relevance within the global economy. In South Africa, the port system includes eight commercial ports, serving both national and international trade, comprising multi-purpose ports like Durban, Cape Town, Gqeberha and East London, as well as bulk-specialised ports such as Richards Bay, Mossel Bay and Saldanha Bay (Havenga, Simpson & Mjoli 2023). Uniquely, this system is centrally governed by the TNPA and operated by Transnet Port Terminals (TPT).
This state-controlled model differs from the typical landlord-port framework seen elsewhere, aiming to align port operations with broader national development goals rather than solely market competition (Meyiwa & Matlala 2023).
While the state-controlled model offers potential development benefits, it can also lead to bureaucratic inefficiencies that hamper responsiveness and operational independence. The Port of Ngqura, near Gqeberha, exemplifies both the opportunities and challenges of modern port development. Built as South Africa’s latest deep-water port, Ngqura was strategically positioned to serve containerised transhipment along key East–West and South–South corridors.
Despite its modern facilities, Ngqura faces issues of underutilisation and ongoing operational difficulties, including procurement delays, limited digital integration and planning fragmentation (Ntuli & Takaendesa 2022; Transnet 2022). Recent research by Chhetri et al. (2022) highlights those inefficiencies in terminal systems, such as outdated cargo handling technologies and maintenance lapses, which not only cause vessel congestion but also undermine customer satisfaction. Inability to fully operationalise systems like NAVIS or maintain reliable terminal equipment results in vessel delays, increased dwell times and high port user dissatisfaction. These performance issues are not solely technical; they reflect a failure to align infrastructural capacity with workforce performance, digital readiness and institutional accountability.
To fully understand these complex inefficiencies, this study employs two complementary theoretical frameworks: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Vroom’s Expectancy Theory.
Herzberg’s model distinguishes hygiene factors such as reliable equipment, fair remuneration and safe working conditions, and motivation factors, including recognition, achievement and career development, asserting that both are essential for maintaining operational efficiency (Alshmemri, Shahwan-Akl & Maude 2017; Herzberg 1966). For instance, the 2019 strike at TPT, partly driven by grievances over deteriorating working conditions and neglected maintenance, demonstrates how the absence of basic hygiene factors can undermine workforce performance (BusinessTech 2022).
The October 2022 national Transnet strike, which paralysed port and rail operations across South Africa for nearly 2 weeks, highlighted the ongoing issues of unresolved labour dissatisfaction, equipment failures and poor communication between management and unions (Truck & Freight Information Online 2022). The recurrence of such industrial actions emphasises that without a consistent focus on essential factors like fair incentives, proper maintenance, and transparent management practices, employee motivation and port productivity are likely to remain hindered.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation (1964) explains that individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their efforts. The theory is underpinned by three interrelated components: expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Expectancy refers to an individual’s belief that putting in more effort will lead to better performance. Instrumentality is the belief that if one performs well, they will receive a desired outcome or reward. Valence represents the value or desirability that an individual places on that reward. According to the theory, motivation is highest when all three elements are strong and aligned; however, if any component is lacking, overall motivation will diminish (Parijat & Bagga 2014). As Gordon (2022) notes, this psychological disconnect is especially damaging in operational environments like ports, where staff engagement and consistency are crucial for avoiding systemic bottlenecks.
In the case of Ngqura Port, these frameworks help explain why infrastructure investment alone cannot resolve performance issues. Challenges stem from technological underperformance, weak institutional coordination and workforce demotivation. Without addressing these human and organisational factors, capital-intensive upgrades may have a limited impact. An integrated approach is therefore necessary, one that combines infrastructure modernisation, digital innovation, regulatory reform and workforce empowerment. Effective port management requires a holistic strategy that unites physical modernisation, digital transformation and human resource development. Only by addressing these interconnected areas can ports, particularly those like Ngqura with significant operational hurdles, reach their full potential as drivers of regional and global trade. Figure 1 presents the study site, the Port of Ngqura, which provides the geographical context for the research.
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FIGURE 1: Location of study sites in Eastern Cape province. |
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Research methods and design
Methodological considerations
This study adopted a qualitative research design informed by an interpretivist paradigm and an inductive reasoning approach. This philosophical foundation was deemed suitable for exploring the complex and context-specific productivity challenges at the Port of Ngqura.
The interpretivist perspective facilitated the co-construction of meaning through direct engagement with operational stakeholders. A purposive sampling strategy was used to select participants with relevant insights and managerial experience. This approach was employed to ensure that individuals with specialised knowledge of the Port of Ngqura’s operations and productivity dynamics were included.
Participants were chosen based on their operational or managerial roles within TNPA and TPT. They typically had extensive experience, generally exceeding 5 years, in areas such as port operations, infrastructure management or logistics coordination. Additionally, they were directly involved in decision-making processes that influence port performance. This method allowed for the inclusion of information-rich participants able to provide in-depth insights into both the strategic and operational aspects of productivity at the port.
A total of 10 individuals were interviewed: five from TNPA, which manages infrastructure and marine services, and five from TPT, responsible for cargo movement and terminal operations. This sample size aligns with the guidance of Shetty (2023), who argues that a carefully chosen qualitative sample of this size is appropriate when ethical safeguards and sampling integrity are maintained.
Because of scheduling constraints, some participants opted to respond in their own time, with the researchers utilising a combination of email responses and a secure Google Form questionnaire link. The semi-structured interview guide consisted of two sections: an initial consent form and a set of open-ended questions designed to garner perspectives on operational barriers and opportunities for productivity enhancement.
To ensure methodological rigour and trustworthiness, two strategies were employed: peer debriefing and thick description. Peer debriefing, as described by Nguyen (2008), involved regular consultation with an external qualitative research expert. This provided ongoing critical feedback during data collection and interpretation. Additionally, thick description was used to offer rich contextual detail, including the operational setting, participant characteristics and research procedures. Such detail, emphasised by Nowell et al. (2017), supports analytical transferability and bolsters the credibility of findings by enabling readers to assess relevance across different contexts.
Ethical considerations
Prior to the commencement of the study, ethical clearance was obtained from the Nelson Mandela University Ethics Committee (Ethics Clearance Number: H22-BES-DEV-058), and permission to conduct the research was granted by port management. All participants provided written informed consent, confirming their voluntary participation without any form of coercion. They were also informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any stage without any negative consequences.
All information provided by participants was treated confidentially and remained anonymous. The collected data remain the property of Nelson Mandela University and will be stored electronically for five years in a password-protected format. The study adhered fully to the requirements of the Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA) of 2021 throughout both data collection and analysis.
Results and discussion
This section presents the findings derived from the collected data. The findings are organised according to the research questions. The results will be analysed by interpreting responses from the management and port operators, highlighting similarities in their responses.
Position and years of experience
This question aimed to establish participants’ levels of experience and their respective roles at the port. The participants’ experience and positions were key factors examined in this study.
Notably, the respondents included individuals with substantial expertise in the field. For example, a Chief Operations Manager from TPT and a Port Performance Monitor from TNPA, both senior roles, participated. These professionals have accumulated over 10 years of experience, providing them with a solid understanding of port operations and management.
Table 1 presents the alignment of participant responses with the key themes that emerged from the findings, illustrating how these correspond to Vroom’s Expectancy Theory.
| TABLE 1: Alignment of participant responses with Vroom’s expectancy theory. |
Additionally, two crane operators from TPT, also with over 10 years of experience, participated. It is important to note that all participants are highly relevant and contribute significantly to the study. Their extensive experience indicates that they possess valuable insights into the strategies and practices implemented at the port. Their expertise enhances the credibility and reliability of the findings.
Understanding of productivity
This question sought to understand the participants’ understanding of what productivity was in their view. The participants’ understanding of productivity varied slightly between management and operational staff, but both emphasised efficiency and meeting key operational targets.
A participant at TPT explained:
‘Productivity is not just about moving containers; it’s ensuring the vessel is serviced on time, every time. Right now, we are consistently below our KPIs, which is a red flag.’ (P7, 52-year-old, male, senior manager)
From the operators’ perspective, productivity was closely linked to seamless coordination across departments:
‘If the truck drivers are late or if planning is off, I can’t do my job. We all depend on each other; if one link is weak, everything slows down.’ (P4, 36-year-old, female, crane operator)
This revelation aligns directly with Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. Operators perceive that even if they exert effort (expectancy), performance suffers because of systemic inefficiencies, weakening their belief that performance will lead to desired outcomes (instrumentality). Furthermore, valence appears low, as the perceived outcomes, such as bonuses or recognition, no longer carry the same motivational value.
Table 1 synthesises how the empirical findings map onto the three components of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, which are expectancy, instrumentality and valence, to illuminate the motivational underpinnings of productivity barriers at the Port of Ngqura. The first column lists the principal themes identified through participant interviews, including equipment failures, staffing shortages, incentive-scheme issues, KPI perceptions, interdepartmental coordination and training gaps. The ‘Expectancy’ column shows how each theme undermines employees’ belief that effort will lead to effective performance (e.g. constant breakdowns erode confidence that hard work will yield results). The ‘Instrumentality’ column demonstrates how, even when performance is possible, systemic obstacles or unclear reward linkages prevent performance from producing valued outcomes. Finally, the ‘Valence’ column highlights the degree to which proposed or existing rewards are seen as desirable by staff, revealing that low morale and poorly designed incentives fail to motivate. Together, these alignments clarify that, unless all three motivational elements are strengthened, efforts to boost physical or technical capacity alone will be insufficient to achieve lasting productivity gains.
How the key factors contribute to productivity
This question sought to establish how the factors answered above in the factors that contribute to the productivity at the Port of Ngqura. Management viewed these factors as enablers of competitiveness and efficiency, but also acknowledged operational disruptions.
One manager explained:
‘Staff shortages, voluntary severance packages, and slow recruitment have left us exposed. Maintenance is delayed, and morale is down.’ (P3, 49-year-old, male, operations manager)
Operators echoed similar concerns. An operator noted:
‘We used to get bonuses that made the long hours worth it. Now, the new scheme doesn’t motivate anyone – it’s just not the same.’ (P9, 36-year-old, female, crane operator)
This finding directly illustrates the third aspect of Vroom’s expectancy theory, namely, ‘valence’ (new incentive scheme) is not valued. Thus, even if effort could lead to performance, and performance to reward, the reward is not desirable. The breakdown across all three components of Vroom’s model – expectancy, instrumentality and valence demonstrate a collapse in motivational alignment. Are Productivity factors in place?
This question sought to determine whether the Port of Ngqura indeed had the required productivity factors in place. While both groups confirmed that productivity measures such as truck turnaround time, berth utilisation and ship working hours are in place, they also admitted that targets are not being met:
‘“We have the systems, yes,” a TNPA performance monitor shared, “but the execution is inconsistent. You can’t hit throughput targets if the cranes are offline, or staff are overstretched.”’ (P5, 42-year-old, male, TNPA performance monitor)
An operator reinforced this sentiment:
‘We know what’s expected, but when tools are missing and teams are short, how do you expect us to meet those numbers?’ (P2, 37-year-old, female, crane operator)
Again, this illustrates the fact that although performance expectations are known, the conditions do not support high expectancy (the belief that effort will lead to performance). When consistent performance seems unattainable and rewards are misaligned with effort, motivational breakdown is inevitable.
Participants’ recommendations for improving productivity at the Port of Ngqura
This section addresses the second research question by outlining participants’ recommendations for improving productivity at the Port of Ngqura. Their responses highlight several practical strategies which, when interpreted through Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation, also point to key motivational gaps affecting the port’s workforce.
Participants suggested enhancing asset utilisation, increasing staffing capacity, investing in infrastructure, upskilling employees, refurbishing equipment and improving staff morale through an effective incentive scheme.
Optimal asset utilisation was widely recommended, particularly ensuring that existing terminal equipment is operated at full capacity. Several participants felt that there are not enough qualified operators available to manage the equipment during peak operational periods, which creates delays and reduces efficiency. As one senior operations manager noted:
‘We have the machines, but not enough people to operate them during peak times. That creates a bottleneck.’ (P10, 39-year-old, male, crane operator)
This observation reflects a breakdown in expectancy, as employees believe their effort cannot translate into performance if adequate human resources and operational support are lacking.
Infrastructure investment was also identified as a key priority, particularly concerning road, rail and quayside facilities. Participants stressed that outdated rail lines and congestion around the terminal delay cargo movement and reduce operational efficiency. A performance monitor from TNPA stated:
‘Outdated rail lines and traffic congestion delay cargo movement. Fixing these would speed everything up.’ (P8, 45-year-old, male, TNPA performance monitor)
By improving infrastructure, the port would be removing external barriers to performance, which enhances both expectancy (belief that effort will lead to improved performance) and instrumentality (confidence that performance will result in meaningful outcomes).
Participants also called for targeted training and employee upskilling to improve operational competence. Operators specifically requested structured and ongoing training in key systems such as NAVIS and SPARCS. One operator explained:
‘We need proper training, especially with the new systems like NAVIS. Some of us are just figuring it out as we go.’ (P1, 34-year-old, male, crane operator)
This aligns directly with the expectancy component of Vroom’s theory; when employees feel adequately trained, they are more likely to believe that their efforts will lead to successful performance.
The need to refurbish and properly maintain critical equipment was a recurring theme among participants. They reported that delayed repairs and a lack of spare equipment often leave operators idle and unable to perform their tasks. One operator pointed out that:
‘Sometimes you wait hours for a machine to be fixed, and there’s no spare to replace it.’ (P10, 39-year-old, male, crane operator)
This situation undermines both expectancy and instrumentality, as workers feel their performance is hindered by factors beyond their control and that their efforts are not consistently linked to outcomes.
In addition to equipment issues, staffing shortages were highlighted as a persistent concern.
Participants mentioned that many experienced staff members had left the organisation because of retirement, voluntary severance packages or contract terminations, and those vacancies remain unfilled. As a result, the existing staff faces excessive workloads and reduced operational capacity, which further diminishes motivation and morale.
Finally, participants emphasised the importance of restoring employee morale through an improved and transparent incentive scheme. Many felt that the revised scheme lacks clarity and does not adequately reward performance. One participant reflected:
‘We used to be motivated by bonuses. Now the scheme is confusing, and it feels like it’s not worth the extra effort.’ (P6, 42-year-old, male, crane operator)
This response illustrates a breakdown in both instrumentality and valence: employees no longer believe that their performance leads to valued rewards, and the rewards offered are no longer perceived as meaningful or desirable.
Overall, the recommendations provided by the participants are not only practical but also address deeper motivational dynamics. When viewed through Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, it becomes clear that restoring productivity at the Port of Ngqura requires more than technical interventions; it demands a holistic approach that rebuilds the psychological connections between effort, performance and reward. Reinstating clear pathways among these elements could significantly enhance motivation and contribute to measurable improvements in port productivity.
Conclusions and recommendations
The study was guided by two core objectives. Firstly, to identify factors influencing port productivity, and secondly, to formulate actionable recommendations that could help the management of the Port of Ngqura enhance its productivity. This study confirms that port productivity is a crucial factor in socio-economic development, with efficient terminals functioning as integrated logistical hubs rather than just transhipment points (Pallis et al. 2023; Parola et al. 2021).
Notteboom’s extensive research on port efficiency underscores the significance of operational performance, terminal management and hinterland connectivity in determining the competitiveness of ports. Although the Port of Ngqura was designed to serve as a transhipment gateway along key trade corridors, ongoing operational inefficiencies related to human resources, equipment reliability and infrastructure have hindered its performance and compromised its competitiveness. This situation reinforces the relevance of Notteboom’s frameworks in understanding these challenges.
By eliciting insights from both managerial and operational staff, this research has closed a critical gap in South African port studies by foregrounding the psychological and organisational dimensions of productivity that have hitherto been under-examined (Grosso, Parola & Satta 2022; Viljoen & Chasomeris 2021). Consistent with Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, the frequent machinery breakdowns, insufficient staffing levels and inadequate working conditions at Ngqura port function as hygiene deficits that precipitate dissatisfaction and impede basic performance (Bhatti, Aslam & Hassan et al. 2020; Herzberg 1966). Complementarily, Vroom’s Expectancy Theory elucidates how employees’ perceptions of low expectancy stemming from unaddressed equipment failures and skill gaps, coupled with diminished instrumentality and valence because of an opaque and undervalued incentive scheme, have eroded workforce motivation (Adusei & Asiedu 2021; Vroom 1964).
To restore productivity and reinvigorate motivation, a multifaceted strategy is imperative. Firstly, reinvestment in equipment refurbishment and the establishment of a dedicated, responsive maintenance team will reduce unplanned downtime and bolster employees’ expectancy that effort will yield performance gains. Secondly, targeted recruitment and retention initiatives should address staff shortages and ensure that critical roles, especially technical maintenance and machine operation, are sustainably filled. Thirdly, upgrading quay, rail and access-road infrastructure will remove systemic bottlenecks, thereby strengthening both expectancy and instrumentality by aligning performance capabilities with reliable operational throughput (Guerrero & Laxe 2020; Tran, Ha & Yeo 2023). Fourthly, the design and communication of a transparent, performance-linked incentive scheme must be prioritised to restore valence; employees must clearly understand and value the rewards associated with high performance.
Fifthly, institutionalising regular, competency-based training in planning and operational systems such as NAVIS and SPARCS will further enhance technical confidence and foster a culture of continuous improvement.
These integrated interventions address not only the tangible barriers to efficiency but also the underlying motivational dynamics that shape employee behaviour. By realigning the psychological contract between effort, performance and reward, the Port of Ngqura can strengthen its value proposition as a transhipment hub, increase throughput consistency and contribute more effectively to the economic development of Gqeberha and South Africa at large. Future research should extend this inquiry through comparative analyses of other regional ports and employ mixed-methods designs to quantify the impact of motivation-based interventions on operational metrics over time.
Limitations and future research areas
This study has made a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge and has provided guidelines that can help management improve operations at the Port of Ngqura.
However, like many studies, it has some limitations that could inform future research.
Firstly, this research was limited to the Port of Ngqura, and the small sample size may affect the generalisability of the findings. Therefore, larger sample sizes should be considered for future studies. For further research, it would be beneficial to conduct a detailed investigation into the views of the port’s clients to identify specific ways to enhance services tailored to port users. The agricultural sector could be a key target population for this research.
Secondly, conducting a similar study at the Port of Durban and the Port of Cape Town could provide insights into similarities and differences across the Transnet group. These data could be valuable for improving all ports in South Africa. Lastly, a new study could explore whether the privatisation of the main container ports in South Africa is vital for addressing the productivity challenges faced by the sector.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their sincere gratitude to Nelson Mandela University for providing the academic and logistical support that made this research possible. The authors extend their appreciation to their colleagues and peers for their constructive feedback, and to the coastal community members, policymakers and stakeholders who generously shared their insights and experiences, which enriched the depth and relevance of this study.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
CRediT authorship contribution
Laura Amoah: Conception, Development, Supervision, Writing. Aluta Mlonzi: Literature review, Methodology. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussions of results, approved the final version for submission and publication and take responsibility for the integrity of the findings.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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