Organisations’ performance and engagement in environmental, social and governance matters are encapsulated by the three pillars of sustainability (Park & Li 2021:1). The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for sustainable development consists of 17 SDGs, which integrate economic, social and environmental sustainability as vital facets of sustainable development. To achieve the UN SDGs, it is essential to enhance supply chain sustainability (Asche et al. 2018:1; Chams & García-Blandón 2019:1; Park & Li 2021:1). Additionally, there is a significant interrelationship between the SDGs and digital technologies, as digitalisation can considerably advance the realisation of these goals by offering faster and more effective solutions to pressing global challenges such as poverty, climate change and inequality (Kumar et al. 2023:1).

Economic sustainability refers to the economic values that organisations contribute to the environment to support and ensure prosperity for future generations (Nogueira, Gomes & Lopes 2022:6). This incorporates social equity with environmental integrity principles and facilitates innovation, productivity and wealth creation (Söylemez & Yangil 2017:113). Supply chains benefit from successful economic sustainability in the long run because it can strengthen organisations’ competitive advantage, achieve transparency and healthy corporate management, boost profits and support the development of the two other pillars (Park & Li 2021:8).

Social sustainability is the responsibility of considering the rights of stakeholders and refraining from irresponsible practices that may harm them (Nassar et al. 2020:467). To maintain a healthy society and environment, social sustainability is concerned with how organisations affect workers, customers and local communities (Park & Li 2021:8). Social sustainability in supply chains explores the social and economic circumstances surrounding the workers, manufacturers and suppliers, including human rights and workplace safety (Park & Li 2021:8). Social sustainability involves making sure that organisations and their supply chain partners manage their operations in a way that supports labour and human rights, health and safety and initiatives to improve moral workplace behaviour (Najjar, Small & Yasin 2020:1). Social sustainability is linked to factors such as labour conditions, diversity, well-being, quality of life, equality and connectedness inside and outside the community (Jia et al. 2018:1).

Environmental sustainability relates to the equitable distribution of benefits from natural and environmental resources across generations (Park & Li 2021:7). Environmental sustainability issues develop when raw materials are used in the production and consumption process and when pollution from activities is released into the environment (Park & Li 2021:7). SDG 13’s objective is to combat climate change as sustaining the environment is a global priority. Environmental sustainability plays an important role in SSCM by reducing carbon emissions and energy consumption and encouraging environmentally friendly practices to promote the development of green supply chains (Yu 2024:195–196). Green supply chain management (GSCM) helps solve environmental issues and enhance organisational performance, and it requires cutting waste and pollution while using renewable and non-renewable resources (Rupa & Saif 2022:141). Environmental sustainability within supply chains can be achieved through implementing optimal environmental management and protection policies and practices for managing natural resources and by the effective allocation of resources by utilising digitalisation (Li et al. 2020:1; Park & Li 2021:7). Environmental regulations and protection policies drive supply chain sustainability by enforcing accountability and transparency while also fostering innovation and long-term resilience.

The automotive industry uses the life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess the environmental performance of vehicles (Bicer & Dincer 2018:142). Life cycle assessment is recognised as the most common technique for assessing environmental impact in manufacturing (Chen et al. 2020:3). Life cycle assessment is used to determine and examine organisations’ environmental impact by identifying the natural resources and energy inputs that are used (Sutawidjaya, Nawangsari & Nor 2021:180). Life cycle assessment obtains data on environmental issues, which may be utilised to reorganise supply chains to enhance environmental performance (Sutawidjaya et al. 2021:180).

Sustainable supply chain management practices have been encouraged by organisations that need to achieve sustainability and enhance supply chain performance (Sánchez-Flores et al. 2020:4). There are various internal and external motives behind adopting SSCM principles. The internal drivers include achieving long-term profitability, brand differentiation benefits, streamlining operations, productivity improvement, competitive opportunities and lowering organisational risk (Gao et al. 2022:698; Zimon, Tyan & Sroufe 2020:222). Other SSCM benefits are improvements in environmental performance and operational efficiency, improved brand image and reputation and expanded customer base and market share, which can lead to a competitive advantage and stronger stakeholder relationships (Gao et al. 2022:698; Paulraj, Chen & Blome 2017:246). External drivers include societal, market and regulatory pressures, including enhancing customer expectations, keeping positive supplier relationships, obeying rules, avoiding penalties and obtaining social acceptance (Gao et al. 2022:698; Shamseldin & Shendy 2021:23). Sustainable supply chain management can help facilitate the implementation and execution of supply chain integration using digital tools (Kumar et al. 2023:1).

Pressures from external stakeholders such as customers, government and shareholders in adopting sustainability practices and digital technologies can motivate manufacturing organisations to implement these elements into their supply chains (Oubrahim & Sefiani 2023:311; Rebs et al. 2019:899). Key drivers that enable the adoption of I4.0 tools for SSCM typically include public funding for digital infrastructure, innovation that enhances environmental performance, secure cloud services and private investments in digital platforms (Samper et al. 2022:648). Public and private support structures can enable the transfer of assistance from digitally mature organisations to those less developed (Samper et al. 2022:648). A legal and political environment that promotes sustainable supply chains is also important, as governments and public institutions exert pressure on supply chain members (Samper et al. 2022:648). Pressure to adopt sustainable practices is put on organisations and supply chains by national regulators and trade organisations (Saeed & Kersten 2019:11). Government regulations and incentives help enforce laws that hold organisations responsible for the environment, thereby encouraging organisations to work towards sustainability through strict rules (Harikannan, Vinodh & Gurumurthy 2021:363). Environmental laws encourage organisations to improve their environmental performance to avoid trade barriers and fines that result from non-compliance (Liu et al. 2021:624; Saeed & Kersten 2019:11). The government interacts with stakeholders and offers tools that support SSCM (Jia et al. 2018:269).

Larger organisations that face reputational risks are more committed to sustainable practices than smaller firms (Jia et al. 2018:265). Campaigns that expose bad practices made by organisations and harm their reputation drive the adoption of sustainable practices (Jia et al. 2018:269). Proactive sustainability activities are driven by societal pressures and awareness of external and internal customers on environmental issues (Harikannan et al. 2021:363). As people become aware of green manufacturing and I4.0 benefits, governments and industries are likely to prioritise sustainable practices (Harikannan et al. 2021:363).

Improvement of the working environment and the health and safety conditions for employees are important drivers (Jia et al. 2018:269–270). To maintain high employee morale and loyalty, organisations should ensure proper working conditions and promote employee health and well-being (Dubey et al. 2017:1121). Pressure and increased awareness of sustainability from society and the media influence organisations to change their health and safety approaches towards employees and the environment (Jia et al. 2018:265; Neri et al. 2018:459). As employee welfare and social reputation are necessary when competing for skilled labour, health and safety drivers have motivated organisations to engage in sustainable practices (Jia et al. 2018:270; Phatak & Sople 2018:21).

Change resistance and I4.0 technologies are key barriers to adopting digitalisation for SSCM (Durmaz & Budak 2022:6667; Maisiri et al. 2021:9). The resistance comes from unknown benefits and a need for knowledge of novel skills (Sharma et al. 2023:5). This resistance also comes from labour unions’ concerns about I4.0 potentially reducing or even eliminating low-skilled and semi-skilled jobs (Maisiri et al. 2021:9). Employees resist changing from traditional practices to embracing innovation because of fear of failure and opposition to necessary changes (Menon & Ravi 2021:5).

There is a lack of political support for the implementation of SSCM, especially in developing countries (Jia et al. 2018:270). This relates to the government not implementing industry-friendly policies towards SSCM (Muchaendepi et al. 2019:495). Governments may delay implementing sustainable supply chain practices and I4.0 technology as policymakers struggle to agree on a common goal to determine what regulations need to be set (Durmaz & Budak 2022:4; Jia et al. 2018:270). Manufacturing organisations in South Africa were concerned that policies and regulations do not support large-scale I4.0 adoption as they were not able to address the rapid I4.0 technology-related changes (Maisiri et al. 2021:10). Rapid advances in Industry 4.0 technologies such as automation, AI and advanced manufacturing outpace governmental policies, risking job losses for low-skilled workers while creating demand for digitally skilled roles that the current workforce is often unprepared to fill. Without adaptive regulation and investment in skills and innovation, developing countries may remain a technology consumer rather than an innovator.

Financial constraints pose a substantial hurdle in I4.0 adoption, particularly when it comes to developing modern infrastructure and innovating sustainable processes (Ghadge et al. 2020:674). Transitioning to production with intelligent machines can create high energy and capital investments (Durmaz & Budak 2022:6667). This includes costs of installing technologies, engineering services and mechanical equipment, maintenance and labour (Sharma et al. 2023:6). Organisations in developing countries may find the initial costs of going green too expensive, and the benefits may not materialise or occur quickly (Jia et al. 2018:270). Emerging technologies pose a significant risk to organisations’ investments as there is a possibility of financial loss (Kamble, Gunasekaran & Sharma 2018:110).

Digitalisation requires a workforce that is capable of using digital technologies (Agrawal, Narain & Ullah 2019:303). There is a lack of knowledge of which I4.0 technology to use in sustainable supply chain processes, causing a deficiency in SCM (Durmaz & Budak 2022:6668). The lack of knowledge of the latest technology and management of global data increases the resistance to adopting I4.0 technology (Ghadge et al. 2020:674). Another barrier to adopting I4.0 is youth unemployment coming from their lack of basic technology skills (Maisiri et al. 2021:9). Enhancing skills and training is needed to align competencies for I4.0 (Sharma et al. 2023:5).

Top management support presents clear visions and values for digital transformation; therefore, the lack of top management support will lead to resistance to change (Agrawal et al. 2019:303). The lack of top management commitment and leadership prevents the adoption of I4.0 sustainability practices (Durmaz & Budak 2022:6668). The adoption of I4.0 can be delayed because of a lack of contributions or knowledge from senior officials; therefore, management acceptance, support and involvement are important (Sharma et al. 2023:5).

In addition, the lack of technology and infrastructure facilities is a barrier to SSCM (Narayanan, Sridharan & Ram Kumar 2019:950; Rahman et al. 2020:689), resulting in system failures and disruptions (Durmaz & Budak 2022:6668). The lack of technical infrastructure is a significant barrier in developing countries (Kumar, Mangla & Kumar 2024:405). In South Africa, the lack of access to advanced technology and a reliable electricity supply is an infrastructure barrier (Maisiri et al. 2021:11).

Organisations can experience issues when integrating new technologies or systems with legacy systems (Koca & Erdoğan 2024:133). Adopting digitalisation poses system integration difficulties and high integration costs (Menon 2024:245). Data security and privacy are major concerns for organisations moving towards digitalisation (Agrawal et al. 2019:303). Data security concerns like hacking, confidentiality breaches and reliability have become common because of the inflow and outflow of data (Weerabahu et al. 2023:3051).

Artificial intelligence and machine learning: Artificial intelligence is the application of human intelligence in machines to carry out tasks creatively and autonomously, without human intervention (Moro-Visconti, Cruz Rambaud & López Pascual 2023:2). Artificial intelligence systems analyse large volumes of data to identify trends, forecast outcomes and make decisions more efficiently and accurately (Moro-Visconti et al. 2023:2–3). Through the analysis of production data to identify inefficiencies and recommend improvements, AI can improve the sustainability of production by maximising resource use, reducing energy and eliminating waste (Rakha 2023:3). Organisations utilise AI to automate repetitive tasks and carry out difficult calculations, which increases productivity and flexibility, minimises waste and lowers the carbon emission index for products (Ghobakhloo 2020:8; Moshood et al. 2021:9).

Machine learning (ML) is a subset of AI that is an algorithm or programme that can learn with minimal or no additional assistance (Amruthnath & Gupta 2018:355). Machine learning algorithms optimise and minimise resource usage by utilising the amount of data that organisations have access to (Varriale et al. 2023:8). For organisations, any differences between the ordered volume and actual consumption can result in significant losses (Varriale et al. 2023:8). Consequently, by using predictive models, ML approaches could support supply chain activities by making accurate and efficient decisions (Moro-Visconti et al. 2023:3; Varriale et al. 2023:8). Machine learning identifies buying patterns, streamlines inventory and warehousing processes and enhance forecasting (Moshood et al. 2021:9).

Internet of Things: Internet of Things is a network of intelligent, interactive and connected objects that allow real-time status information transfer and sensing, bridging processes, data and people to develop intelligence more effectively and create new business opportunities (Liu et al. 2023:8). Machines and product components can exchange real-time data, which facilitates the ongoing monitoring and control of processes (Beier, Niehoff & Xue 2018:1). Internet of Things facilitates real-time inventory management, automated stock replenishment and delivery tracking (Moshood et al. 2021:1).

Internet of Things provides access to information about manufacturing components and processes across supply chains (Beier et al. 2018:2). As IoT makes real-time data accessible, it may foster transparency and help organisations manage and report environmental impacts thoroughly (Ali et al. 2023:3; Beier et al. 2018:2). Internet of Things can improve supply chain transparency through real-time process monitoring of resource usage (Chen et al. 2020:5; Moshood et al. 2021:8). Complementary technologies such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) enhance IoT applications by enabling accurate identification and tracking of products throughout the supply chain, while digital twins create virtual replicas of physical systems that allow predictive analysis, performance optimisation and improved decision-making based on real-time data (Tao et al. 2019:158).

Big data analytics: Organisations frequently lack comprehensive information about the impact of their supply chains on the environment when conducting environmental assessments (Dubey et al. 2019:535). Big data analytics (BDA) may be able to address these problems, which go undetected because supply chains lack transparency (Dubey et al. 2019:535). Big data analytics evaluates massive volumes of data to provide insights and meaning to the underlying data (Bai et al. 2020:3).

Supply chain operations’ data can be utilised to assess overall sustainability (Raut et al. 2019:12). Sustainable supply chain management uses BDA to enhance performance and sustainability by improving process control and enabling processes to act independently (Liu et al. 2023:7; Raut et al. 2019:12). Big data analytics enables processes to be environmentally friendly by identifying opportunities to minimise waste and improve energy efficiency (Peng et al. 2023:3). Big data analytics rapidly analyses data to minimise potential expenses such as carbon emission penalties and maintain low environmental cost (Liu et al. 2023:5).

Additive manufacturing: Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing, involves using several layered or additive development frameworks for three-dimensional (3D) solid items (Bai et al. 2020:3). Additive manufacturing reduces shipping costs by producing components on demand at locations (Haleem et al. 2023:172). Three-dimensional prototypes can be produced more rapidly and affordably than traditional methods (Chen et al. 2020:17; Haleem et al. 2023:172). Additive manufacturing has the potential to reduce energy usage in production by decreasing material waste and allowing customisation in manufacturing (Sun et al. 2021:2). Developing customised parts and products results in lower material consumption and waste, which lowers environmental impact (Chen et al. 2020:17; Ribeiro et al. 2020:2).

Blockchain technology: Blockchain technology is a decentralised database that all users of a blockchain network can access and contains shared public and private ledgers of all digital activities conducted (Praveenadevi et al. 2023:234). Supply chain participants have access to comprehensive information in real time (Park & Li 2021:2). Blockchain emphasises intelligent execution, audibility, security and decentralisation (Praveenadevi et al. 2023:234). Blockchain enables supply chains to identify products that have been counterfeited more readily and unethical suppliers by limiting data recording to those who are authorised (Praveenadevi et al. 2023:234). Blockchain ensures transparency and reliability of data produced in SSCM because the immutable blocks eliminate the possibility of false reputation records among stakeholders through continuous monitoring (Liu et al. 2023:7; Varriale et al. 2023:9).

Autonomous robotics: Autonomous robotics replicate human behaviours in manufacturing processes to enhance operational efficiency and support emerging sustainable practices (Bai et al. 2020:3; Varriale et al. 2023:14). They are designed to operate accurately and reliably, which minimises errors and waste (Liu et al. 2024:1). Organisations can automate repetitive, manual processes to accelerate process completion, minimise errors and reduce delays (Peng et al. 2023:3). They can also operate continuously without the need for breaks or sleep, which increases production with less energy consumption (Liu et al. 2024:1). Robots should perform repetitive activities such as sorting, counting and fetching products, while employees focus on more difficult and strategic tasks (Peng et al. 2023:3).

Cloud computing: Cloud computing provides resources and services on demand by utilising distributed computer networks, including data centres and servers (Chauhan et al. 2023:7). Cloud computing reduces the need to operate large, expensive on-site computer equipment while providing simplicity, scalability and global accessibility (Moshood et al. 2021:8). Cloud computing can provide better energy efficiency strategies, lower carbon emissions and reduced equipment requirements (Radu 2017:4). Cloud computing can function alongside and enhance on-premises supply chain applications by providing an enhanced user interface, greater capability and instant access to new updates and features (Moshood et al. 2021:8). Cloud computing services offer continuous platforms for global networking real-time data sharing and access to network information (Bermejo & Juiz 2023:42; Chauhan et al. 2023:7).

Improved operational efficiency occurs when organisations utilise their resources effectively to enhance profitability. Participants experienced reduced errors when adopting digitalisation. Digitalisation reduces the need for human intervention, which reduces errors as demonstrated in the following:

Digitalisation enables quick task completion by automating processes and providing users with immediate access to information, as identified by participants. This can be seen in the following quote:

Furthermore, participants indicated that customers want products on demand and digitalisation enables these participants to fulfil customer demand quicker, as seen in the following quote:

Improved lead time was identified by participants. Digitalisation enhanced planning, allowing organisations to reduce lead times and deliver more vehicles or components. This finding is supported by the following quote:

Carbon emission reduction refers to reducing CO2 and other greenhouse gases emitted during operations and vehicle production. Participants highlighted that digitalisation reduced carbon emissions. Digitalisation optimises capacity and route planning by utilising real-time data to determine the number of trucks and trips, track to identify high carbon emission vehicles and design environmentally friendly vehicles. The following quote supports this:

Digitalisation monitors and reports emissions, which encouraged organisations to build electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids to reduce emissions, as mentioned by participants. Digitalisation may encourage organisations to develop EVs and hybrids to meet customer demand and achieve SDGs as described in the following:

Optimised sustainability involves improving processes to use resources more efficiently and effectively, with emphasis on reducing environmental impact. A participant indicated that digitalisation has encouraged them to utilise digitalisation to incorporate sustainability reporting and Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) metrics to track their carbon footprint, as illustrated in the following:

Investments in sustainable practices contribute to a more sustainable adoption of digitalisation, as highlighted by one participant. Digital tools can be charged sustainably by investing in sustainable practices such as solar power to reduce energy consumption, as seen in the quote that follows:

Waste reduction is the practice and strategy used to minimise waste, thereby reducing environmental impact. Adopting digitalisation helped participants reduce waste. Digitalisation helps control stock levels and availability of the correct stock at the right time, reducing waste associated with overstocking and delays as illustrated in the following:

Digitalisation enabled organisations to be more efficient by using digital systems to store information. This is supported in the following:

Digitalisation increased productivity, as pointed out by participants. Digital tools increase productivity by automating processes and providing real-time information to make informed production decisions. This is highlighted in the following quote:

The findings are consistent with the current literature as one goal of digitalisation is to maximise efficiency, which can be done through the optimisation of manufacturing processes for more efficient production (Chen et al. 2020:5; Jamwal et al. 2021:1). Organisations can utilise digital tools that encourage them to adopt sustainable practices to reduce their carbon emission (Xu et al. 2022:5). Organisations can use their digital capabilities for sustainable reporting, as digital tools can assist in better management and reporting of environmental impacts (Ali et al. 2023:3; Beier et al. 2018:2). Digital tools can reduce waste in production and operations as they are designed to operate accurately and reliably (Liu et al. 2024:1).

Stakeholder influence refers to individuals or groups that can have an impact on organisations’ decisions and outcomes. Participants emphasised how customers’ influence impacts their decision to adopt digitalisation for SSCM. Digitalisation enables organisations to meet environmentally conscious and digitally proficient customers’ expectations by providing efficient, sustainable solutions and enhancing transparency. This is demonstrated in the following quote:

Competitors influence organisations to adopt digitalisation for SSCM and maintain competitiveness, as indicated by seven participants. Digitalisation equips organisations with capabilities to meet customer demands and remain competitive in changing markets, as described by the following quote:

Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) and head office’s decisions influenced organisations to adopt digitalisation for SSCM. OEMs and head offices determine when organisations should adopt digitalisation by evaluating the costs and benefits as indicated in the following:

Shareholders influence digitalisation adoption for SSCM, as they aim to achieve strong returns on investments, long-term value creation and sustainable growth. Digitalisation enables organisations to maximise profitability by optimising processes. This is highlighted by the following quote:

The government’s rules and regulations influenced organisations to adopt digitalisation for SSCM by implementing policies and regulations that motivated them to invest in digitalisation to meet sustainability standards. This is seen in the following quote:

Customer engagement is the continuous development of long-term relationships between organisations and customers. According to participants, customer satisfaction motivated them to adopt digitalisation as it streamlined processes and gained better insights into customer needs through real-time data. This is indicated in this quote:

Digitalisation enhances customer experience by providing integrated platforms and streamlining interactions to be more responsive, as seen in the following:

Convenience for customers played a role in the adoption of digitalisation as it can offer customers convenience by allowing them flexibility and easier access in interacting with the organisation at their comfort, as illustrated in the following:

Competitive advantage is the capabilities that enable organisations to offer superior products or services compared to competitors. Participants emphasised that improved customer service played a crucial role in the adoption of digitalisation by offering real-time information to customers, as seen in the following:

Furthermore, participants mentioned that being a first-mover influenced digitalisation adoption. Digitalisation gave organisations features and strategic benefits that enabled them to stay ahead of competitors, supported by the following quote:

Cost reduction is the practice used to minimise costs to maximise profitability. Participants experienced cost savings with the adoption of digitalisation by reducing manual labour, improving resource management and automating processes. See the quote that follows:

A return on investment influences organisations to adopt digitalisation because of the potential financial benefits they can experience, such as profitability. This is illustrated in the following:

Saving space influenced digitalisation adoption, as the need for physical storage was reduced. This is demonstrated in the following:

The literature review links with the findings that stakeholders influence organisations to adopt digitalisation to improve sustainability (Oubrahim & Sefiani 2023:311). Customer engagement drives organisations to incorporate and expand sustainability across their supply chains (Najjar et al. 2020:5). Successful adoption of sustainability can strengthen supply chains and provide organisations with a competitive advantage (Park & Li 2021:8). By adopting digital tools in the supply chain, organisations can experience cost reductions (Pathak 2023:122).

Skills gap is the difference between what an organisation requires and the abilities that employees possess. Skills shortages hindered digitalisation adoption by limiting their ability to effectively implement, manage and optimise new digital tools as illustrated:

Hindered skills development can prevent the adoption of digitalisation, as organisations may prioritise adopting new digital tools over upskilling existing employees as described:

Cost constraints are the financial limitations preventing organisations from investing or pursuing projects. High digitalisation costs can hinder digitalisation adoption. Digitalisation costs limit organisations’ ability to invest in the initial and maintenance expenses required for successful digital transformation, as highlighted:

Change resistance is the reluctance of individuals to accept and adapt to new conditions. According to participants, employees’ resistance to digitalisation can hinder or impact the pace of adoption by opposing new digital tools or delaying adoption. This resistance may stem from a lack of understanding of the benefits or job security concerns. This is illustrated in the following:

In addition, participants mentioned that top management’s resistance can hinder the adoption by not providing the necessary support and resources for digital transformation. They tend to be more inclined to the old organisational culture or old ways of operating, as seen in the following:

The findings indicate that older generations’ resistance can hinder adoption because of their discomfort or unfamiliarity with new technologies. They may prefer familiar processes, which then slows down the adoption as demonstrated in the following:

Investors’ reluctance to invest in digitalisation hinders adoption. This can be a lack of willingness to allocate funds towards digitalisation because of uncertainty. This is described in the following:

Infrastructure limitations are the inadequate physical or organisational structures that limit organisations’ ability to adopt new technologies or processes. Participants indicated that poor infrastructure, such as unreliable networks, inconsistent electricity supply and high electricity costs, could impede adoption. Poor infrastructure restricts organisations’ ability to support advanced technologies, as demonstrated in the following:

Load shedding can impede adoption by causing power disruptions that interfere with digital operations and limit the ability to fully utilise digital tools, as mentioned by some participants. Power disruptions can impact the charging of digital tools that rely on electricity, leading to delays. Refer to the following quote:

Data security concerns are the potential threats and risks related to safeguarding sensitive information from unauthorised access. According to participants, concerns about confidentiality can impede adoption because of fears of access to sensitive information, as described in the following:

A lack of trust in digitalisation can hinder adoption, as concerns about insufficient security and the potential risks of data breaches can occur. This can be seen in the following quote:

Systems integration difficulties are difficulties encountered while integrating different systems, software applications or technologies. Participants stated that compatibility issues can hinder adoption as integrating different systems can be challenging, leading to inefficiencies, data inconsistencies and workflow disruptions as seen in the following:

The findings show that legacy systems’ constraints can impede adoption by making it difficult to integrate new systems with outdated ones. Legacy systems frequently lack flexibility or scalability to support more advanced systems, as mentioned by participants and demonstrated in the following:

Integration costs can impede adoption by creating financial obstacles, leading to higher costs. Organisations may incur technical expertise and systems upgrade expenses associated with integrating systems, as detailed in the following:

The findings are consistent with the literature review as a lack of technology skills is a barrier to adopting digitalisation (Maisiri et al. 2021:9). Transitioning production to include digital tools requires significant capital investments (Durmaz & Budak 2022:6667). Change resistance arises from a lack of understanding of digitalisation benefits (Sharma et al. 2023:5). A lack of infrastructure to support digitalisation can lead to disruptions and system failures (Durmaz & Budak 2022:6668). With the increased movement of data, data security concerns such as confidentiality, breaches and reliability issues have become prevalent (Weerabahu et al. 2023:3051). Integration challenges can hinder adoption when organisations encounter difficulties in integrating new systems with legacy systems (Koca & Erdoğan 2024:133).

Automation is using technology to carry out operations with little to no human intervention. Automated guided vehicles (AGVs) are used to transport parts to the assembly line. Automated guided vehicles can lower energy use through accurate routing, minimise human errors as correct parts are picked and optimise the movement of parts. See the quote that follows:

Participants noted that they are using robotics to automate tasks, which reduces manual handling during production as highlighted in the following:

Advanced analytics uses methods to analyse information from multiple data sources. A participant indicated that Power BI provides visualisation and analytics capabilities to monitor real-time performance as described in the following:

Blockchain enables organisations to track and trace products’ movement across the supply chain, as stated and illustrated by a participant in the following:

According to participants, AI identifies strategic opportunities to improve areas such as marketing, feature optimisation and decision-making. This is explained in the following:

Internet of Things refers to interconnected devices and software that communicate and share information with other devices over the Internet. Sensors monitor performance and provide real-time data, as emphasised by a participant. Sensors can detect and prevent errors related to inefficiencies in production, as supported in the following:

Tracking devices provide real-time information about the location and status of products, as illustrated in the following:

In addition, by using RFIDs, participants experienced an improvement in inventory management by capturing the real-time movement:

Furthermore, by using tablets, participants are reducing paper usage and gaining immediate access to real-time information. This can be seen in the following:

Enterprise software is designed to assist and automate essential functions. Systems Applications and Product offers participants insight into the flow of products and components, along with up-to-date information as demonstrated in the following:

Electronic Data Interchange facilitates the exchange of information between supply chain partners, leading to reduced paper use. EDI provides real-time access to information, enabling organisations to identify areas for improvement as seen in the following:

In addition, participants indicated that customised systems can seamlessly integrate with supply chain partners’ systems, leading to streamlined processes and easier data accessibility. These systems are tailored to the organisations’ needs. See the quote that follows:

The literature links with the findings that automating repetitive tasks allows employees to concentrate on more strategic tasks (Peng et al. 2023:3). Advanced analytics enables transparency and reliability of data through continuous monitoring and provides real-time information (Liu et al. 2023:7; Park & Li 2021:2; Varriale et al. 2023:9). Internet of Things provides real-time information on components, products and processes across the supply chain (Beier et al. 2018:2). Organisations can leverage digitalisation to transform traditional supply chain processes and systems, enhancing efficiency, flexibility and environmental awareness (Peng et al. 2023:2).

Supply chain visibility is to manage the flow of products, materials and information in real time as they move through the supply chain. Participants stated that digital tools enable real-time tracking and monitoring of parts and products. Tracking and monitoring provide real-time data on inventory and production processes, which enhances transparency across the supply chain as per the following quote:

Digital tools provided early awareness of potential problems. Earlier awareness can enable proactive decision-making and optimise resource usage. Organisations can anticipate disruptions and efficiently manage inventory as described in the following:

Digital tools provide organisations with end-to-end supply chain visibility through a centralised system. End-to-end visibility provides an in-depth view of each stage in the supply chain, allowing for more responsive, efficient and sustainable practices as demonstrated in the following:

The data show that digital tools enhance accountability across the supply chain by enabling organisations to accurately identify where and when problems occur, as mentioned by participants. Digital tools create audit trails with every transaction and process. This can be seen in the following:

Digital tools improve information accuracy by providing reliable, quality data throughout the entire supply chain. This is evident in the following quote:

Decision-making entails choosing strategies and processes to effectively manage supply chain operations, inventory, sourcing and transportation. Participants mentioned that digitalisation can accurately predict the stock needed, ensuring that they have the right inventory at the right time to prevent overstocking or stockouts. This is explained in the following:

In addition, participants noted that digital tools improve decision-making throughout the supply chain by providing real-time information and data analysis, allowing for more informed and strategic choices. This is highlighted in the following:

Key performance indicator metrics measure overall supply chain performance and the effectiveness of the organisation’s strategies towards its objectives. Accuracy KPIs are used by participants to assess the effectiveness of digital tools by measuring their reliability and accuracy. Digitalisation provides organisations with accurate real-time data, which enables precise performance reporting and gives accurate information on supply chain operations as illustrated in the following:

Profitability KPIs are used to measure the impact of digital tools by assessing how they contribute to financial performance. Profitability KPIs can encourage cost-effective practices. The following quote supports this:

In addition, quality control KPIs are used by participants to assess how effectively digital tools improve quality and minimise defects. Digital tools help to identify where improvements are needed in production. This is evident in the following:

Improved accuracy is an organisation’s ability to reduce mistakes and optimise resources by aligning its information and operations with real-time needs and conditions. Digital tools enable more accurate production planning by leveraging real-time data. Digital tools provide accurate insights into production timelines, helping organisations to make better use of resources as seen in the following:

Digital tools improve inventory accuracy by providing real-time data and accessible information. Digital tools offer continuous inventory monitoring and better demand forecasts. This is illustrated in the following:

Furthermore, digital tools improve order accuracy as they can ensure that orders are fulfilled correctly and on time, thus reducing the need for returns. This can be described in the following:

Collaboration and communication occur when individuals or organisations exchange information and ideas and work together by combining skills and resources to achieve a common goal based on shared understanding. Digitalisation enhances collaboration within participants’ supply chains by enabling real-time connectivity, which allows stakeholders to align efforts more effectively. As a result, collaboration is improved, and supply chain partners can make more informed, aligned decisions. This is demonstrated in the following:

Digital tools facilitate information sharing by providing stakeholders with real-time access to information. Digitalisation enables the exchange of real-time data by integrating different systems, which provides a centralised platform for the sharing of information as seen in the following:

In addition, participants emphasised that digital tools enable collaborative planning across the supply chain through integrated platforms. Digital tools help stakeholders to work together effectively by optimising the planning of shared resources, production and logistics. This is described in the following:

Previous literature aligns with the findings that digitalisation provides visibility by making information available to supply chain partners (Varriale et al. 2023:2). Digital tools support supply chain activities through accurate and efficient decision-making (Moro-Visconti et al. 2023:3; Varriale et al. 2023:8). Digital tools can improve accuracy as they are designed to operate with high accuracy and reliability (Liu et al. 2024:1). Organisations will measure the benefits of digital tools by using profitability and quality metrics (Haleem et al. 2023:204). Digitalisation transforms a traditional supply chain into an interconnected system by integrating processes through information sharing, collaboration and communication enabled by digital tools (Tseng et al. 2021:3–4).